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• Alexander Jannaeus (King Yannai)
  Jannaeus was a Hasmonean king who ruled Judea and expanded its territory. His reign was marked by conflicts between Jewish groups, particularly the Pharisees and Sadducees. His actions helped shape the Jewish political and religious landscape in the years before Roman control.

• Salome (Shlomzion) Alexandra
  Salome was a queen who ruled Judea after her husband's death. She supported the Pharisees, which strengthened their influence. Her reign brought peace, but after her death, the country fell into chaos.

• Aristobulus II
  Aristobulus was a Hasmonean king who fought his brother for the throne. His reign ended when the Romans took control of Judea. His defeat marked the beginning of Roman rule over the Jews.

• Hyrcanus II
  Hyrcanus was a high priest and king of Judea but was weak and controlled by the Romans. His reign symbolized the loss of Jewish independence before Roman occupation. He was a puppet king under Roman influence.

• Hillel
  Hillel was a famous Jewish teacher known for his wisdom and compassion. He is remembered for his interpretation of Jewish law and his emphasis on ethics, especially the "Golden Rule." His teachings laid the foundation for Rabbinic Judaism.

• Shammai
  Shammai was a Jewish teacher known for his strict interpretation of Jewish law. He often disagreed with Hillel, whose views were more lenient. Shammai's teachings contributed to the diversity of Jewish legal thought.

• Antipater
  Antipater was an advisor and father of Herod the Great. He helped his family gain power under Roman protection. His political skill set the stage for the Herodian dynasty’s rise.

• Herod the Great
  Herod was the king of Judea under Roman rule. He is known for rebuilding the Second Temple in Jerusalem but also for his cruelty and political maneuvering. His reign marked the height of Jewish-Roman tension.

• Mariamne
  Mariamne was Herod the Great's wife, a member of the Hasmonean family. Her tragic death at Herod's orders symbolizes the downfall of the Hasmonean dynasty. Her story reflects the harshness of Herod's reign.

• Philo of Alexandria
  Philo was a Jewish philosopher in Egypt who tried to combine Greek philosophy with Jewish beliefs. His writings influenced early Christian thinkers and helped shape Jewish thought in the Hellenistic world.

• Bannus
  Bannus was an ascetic who influenced John the Baptist. He lived in the wilderness and focused on prayer and repentance. His life shows the growing interest in asceticism in Jewish culture at the time.

• John the Baptist
  John the Baptist was a Jewish preacher who called people to repent for the coming of the Messiah. He baptized Jesus, and his ministry set the stage for Christianity. He is important in both Jewish and Christian traditions.

• Honi the Circle-Drawer
  Honi was a Jewish sage known for his prayer to bring rain during a drought. He drew a circle around himself and asked God for rain, which came. His story shows the Jewish belief in the power of prayer.

• Jesus of Nazareth
  Jesus was a Jewish teacher who became the central figure in Christianity. While Jews today don’t see him as the Messiah, his teachings have had a profound impact on history and Christian theology.

• Saul of Tarsus/Paul
  Paul was a Jewish Pharisee who became a key figure in early Christianity. He spread Christianity to non-Jews and wrote letters that form a large part of the Christian Bible. His ideas influenced the separation of Christianity from Judaism.

• Peter
  Peter was one of Jesus' apostles and is considered the first pope in Catholic tradition. He helped spread Jesus' teachings and played a key role in the early Christian church. His work shows the shift from Judaism to Christianity.

• James
  James, the brother of Jesus, was a leader of the early Jewish-Christian community in Jerusalem. He helped maintain a connection between Jewish law and the teachings of Jesus. His leadership represents the early Jewish roots of Christianity.

• Josephus
  Josephus was a Jewish historian who wrote about the Jewish-Roman wars and the history of the Jews. His works are crucial for understanding the Jewish world in the first century CE, especially the destruction of the Second Temple.

• Agrippa I
  Agrippa I was a king of Judea who ruled under Roman authority. He tried to support traditional Jewish practices but persecuted early Christians. His reign shows the tension between Jewish tradition and Roman rule.

• Agrippa II
  Agrippa II was the last Jewish king before the fall of Judea to Rome. He played a role in early Christian history, especially in his interactions with Paul. His reign ended with the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE.

• Berenice
  Berenice was the sister of Agrippa II and had close ties with the Roman emperor Titus. She played a role in Roman-Jewish politics during the first century. Her story reflects the complex relationships between Jewish royalty and Roman power.

• Shimon Bar Kosiba (Bar Kokhba)
  Bar Kokhba led a major revolt against Rome in 132–135 CE, hoping to restore Jewish independence. Though he failed and was killed, he became a symbol of Jewish resistance. His defeat marked the end of Jewish sovereignty in the land of Israel.

• R. Yohanan ben Zakkai (connection to Yavneh)
  R. Yohanan ben Zakkai was a key Jewish sage after the destruction of the Second Temple. He helped establish the Jewish learning center at Yavneh, which preserved Judaism after the Temple’s fall. His work laid the foundation for Rabbinic Judaism and the survival of Jewish traditions.

• Pompey
  Pompey was a Roman general who conquered Judea in 63 BCE, making it a client kingdom under Roman control. His invasion marked the beginning of Roman influence over Jewish life. Pompey’s desecration of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem deeply affected Jewish relations with Rome.

• Octavian/Augustus
  Octavian, later known as Augustus, was the first Roman emperor (27 BCE – 14 CE). Under his rule, Judea became a Roman province after the death of Herod the Great. Augustus' reign marked the beginning of the Roman Empire and a period of relative peace (Pax Romana) but also increased Roman dominance over the Jewish people.

• Tiberius
  Tiberius was the second Roman emperor (14–37 CE) during the life of Jesus. His reign saw tensions between Roman authorities and Jewish communities, especially with the growing influence of early Christianity. He was not directly involved in the trial of Jesus but played a role in the political environment of the time.

• Pontius Pilate
  Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor of Judea from 26–36 CE, best known for overseeing the trial and crucifixion of Jesus. His actions represent the complex relationship between the Roman Empire and local Jewish authorities during the time of Jesus.

• Caligula
  Caligula was a Roman emperor (37–41 CE) who is infamous for his cruelty and eccentric behavior. He attempted to have a statue of himself placed in the Jewish Temple, which caused a great uproar among Jews. His reign was a significant example of Roman oppression in Judea.

• Flaccus
  Flaccus was the Roman governor of Egypt from 32–38 CE, known for his anti-Jewish policies, including the persecution of Jews in Alexandria. His actions contributed to the strained relations between Jews and the Roman authorities in Egypt during the first century.

• Petronius
  Petronius was a Roman governor who, around 26–30 CE, was sent to prevent Caligula’s plan to place his statue in the Jewish Temple. His intervention spared the Temple, but his efforts ultimately failed to prevent Roman tensions in Judea.

• Claudius
  Claudius was Roman emperor from 41–54 CE. His reign included the expulsion of Jews from Rome due to disturbances involving early Christians. Claudius’ reign influenced the Jewish diaspora and the early spread of Christianity.

• Nero
  Nero was the Roman emperor from 54–68 CE, notorious for his persecution of Christians and his role during the Jewish revolt. Under his rule, the First Jewish-Roman War began, culminating in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.

• Gessius Florus
  Gessius Florus was the Roman governor of Judea in the late 60s CE. His harsh rule and brutal repression of Jewish protests helped ignite the Great Jewish Revolt (66–70 CE), leading to the destruction of the Second Temple.

• Cestius Gallus
  Cestius Gallus was the Roman legate in Syria who led a failed military campaign against Jewish rebels in 66 CE. His defeat helped spark the Great Jewish Revolt, which eventually led to the Roman siege of Jerusalem.

• Vespasian
  Vespasian was the Roman emperor (69–79 CE) who led the Roman forces during the later stages of the Great Jewish Revolt. His eventual victory resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE.

• Titus
  Titus was Vespasian’s son and the Roman general who completed the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 CE, culminating in the destruction of the Second Temple. His actions were pivotal in ending Jewish sovereignty in the land of Israel for almost 2,000 years.

• Domitian
  Domitian was the Roman emperor from 81–96 CE. His reign saw increased persecution of Christians and Jews, including measures that affected Jewish religious practices. His rule represents a period of heightened Roman control over Jewish life.

• Trajan
  Trajan was the Roman emperor (98–117 CE) under whom the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent. His reign is notable for the expansion of Roman law and further consolidation of Roman power over Jewish communities, including the suppression of the Jewish rebellion in 115 CE.

• Hadrian
  Hadrian was the Roman emperor (117–138 CE) who crushed the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE. His suppression of the revolt, the banning of circumcision, and the renaming of Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina marked a major blow to Jewish hopes for independence.

• Constantine (connection to the Council of Nicaea)
  Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor (reigned 306–337 CE). At the Council of Nicaea (325 CE), he helped establish foundational Christian doctrines, which significantly impacted relations between Jews and Christians. His policies marked the beginning of Christianity's dominance in the Roman Empire.

• Theodosius I
  Theodosius I was a Roman emperor (379–395 CE) who made Christianity the official state religion. His policies led to the decline of Jewish religious and cultural institutions in the Roman Empire while promoting Christian orthodoxy.

Jewish Figures and Groups

19. Apion
    Apion was a Greek-speaking Egyptian author and a critic of the Jews in Alexandria. His writings are important for understanding anti-Jewish sentiments in the Hellenistic world, especially during the time of the Jewish revolts against Roman oppression.

20. Wicked Priest
    The "Wicked Priest" is a figure mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly in the 1QpHab (Habakkuk Pesher). He is believed to represent a corrupt priestly leader of Jerusalem who persecuted the Essenes. This figure is significant for understanding the tensions between different Jewish factions.

21. Teacher of Righteousness
    The Teacher of Righteousness is a key figure in the Dead Sea Scrolls, believed to be the leader of the Essenes. His teachings were considered righteous, in contrast to the corruption of the Jerusalem priesthood. His identity is debated, but he is central to the theological ideas of the Qumran community.

22. Cleopatra
    Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, had a significant relationship with Jewish leaders, particularly through her alliances with the Hasmonean dynasty. While not Jewish herself, her political and military actions influenced Jewish politics during the late Second Temple period.

Key Terms and Concepts in Jewish Thought and History

23. Letter of Aristeas
    The Letter of Aristeas is a document that tells the story of the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, known as the Septuagint. It reflects the growing Hellenistic influence on Jewish culture and highlights the significance of translating Jewish texts for the wider world.

24. Septuagint (LXX)
    The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, completed by Jewish scholars in Alexandria around the 3rd century BCE. It became the primary Bible for Greek-speaking Jews and early Christians, influencing the spread of Jewish thought and the development of Christianity.

25. Pharisees
    The Pharisees were a Jewish sect that emphasized strict adherence to the Torah and oral law. They believed in the resurrection of the dead and the afterlife, and their teachings laid the groundwork for Rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Temple.

26. Sadducees
    The Sadducees were a Jewish sect that held power in the Temple priesthood and rejected the oral traditions of the Pharisees. They believed in the strict interpretation of the written Torah and did not believe in the resurrection, which put them at odds with the Pharisees.

27. Zadokites
    The Zadokites were an ancient priestly family who served in the Jerusalem Temple. They are often associated with the more traditional priesthood and played a significant role in the religious leadership during the First Temple period.

28. Essenes
    The Essenes were a Jewish sect known for their ascetic lifestyle and emphasis on purity. They are most famous for their association with the Dead Sea Scrolls and their belief in the imminent coming of a messianic figure.

29. Qumran
    Qumran is the site near the Dead Sea where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. The scrolls provide important insights into the beliefs and practices of the Essenes and other Jewish groups during the Second Temple period.

30. Halakhic Letter
    A Halakhic Letter is a written document that provides guidance on Jewish law (halakhah). These letters were often used by Jewish authorities to communicate legal rulings and decisions.

31. Pesher
    Pesher is a method of biblical interpretation used by the Dead Sea Scrolls community, where prophetic texts are interpreted as referring to contemporary events. It was a way of making sense of Scripture in light of current historical and religious struggles.

32. Seekers-after-smooth-things (Dorshei-Halakhot)
    This term refers to those who interpret Jewish law in a way that fits their own desires or convenience, rather than following the true spirit of the law. It appears in some Jewish texts as a critique of those who bend the law for personal gain.

1. Zealots
   The Zealots were a radical Jewish group in the 1st century CE who opposed Roman rule and sought to overthrow it. They believed in using force if necessary to resist Roman occupation and were heavily involved in the Jewish War. Their actions led to their destruction during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.

2. Sicarii
   The Sicarii were a subgroup of the Zealots, known for their use of daggers (sicarii) to assassinate Roman sympathizers and collaborators. They were particularly active in Jerusalem and were involved in the Jewish War. The Sicarii symbolized the extreme resistance to Roman rule.

3. Pseudepigrapha
   The Pseudepigrapha refers to a collection of Jewish writings, often attributed to biblical figures, but written by unknown authors in the centuries between the Old and New Testaments. These texts offer insights into Jewish thought and the religious climate before the rise of Christianity.

4. Apocalypse
   An apocalypse is a genre of literature that deals with revelations about the end of the world or divine judgment. Many Jewish apocalyptic works, like Daniel, reflect a belief in God’s intervention in history, especially during times of persecution. This genre heavily influenced Christian texts like the Book of Revelation.

5. Allegory
   Allegory is a method of interpretation where abstract ideas are represented by characters or events. In Jewish literature, allegories were often used to explain deeper spiritual or moral lessons, especially in texts like the Song of Songs and the writings of Philo of Alexandria.

6. God-fearers
   God-fearers were non-Jews who were sympathetic to Judaism and regularly attended synagogue but did not fully convert. They were important in the spread of Judaism in the Roman Empire, especially among Gentiles who were interested in Jewish teachings but did not want to undergo circumcision.

Key Jewish Texts

7. Jotapata
   Jotapata was a town in Galilee where Jewish resistance against the Romans during the Jewish War was particularly fierce. The town fell to the Romans, and the historian Josephus was captured here, marking a turning point in the revolt.

8. Jewish War
   The Jewish War (66–73 CE) was a rebellion by the Jews against Roman rule. It destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE and the eventual fall of Jerusalem. The war marked the end of Jewish sovereignty in the land of Israel for nearly two thousand years.

9. Antiquities of the Jews
   Antiquities of the Jews is a work by the Jewish historian Josephus, which outlines the history of the Jewish people from creation to the Jewish War. It is an essential source for understanding the history of Judaism during the Second Temple period.

10. Against Apion
    Against Apion is another work by Josephus that defends Judaism against the criticisms of Greek and Roman writers, particularly the philosopher Apion. It highlights the legitimacy of Judaism and defends Jewish customs and beliefs.

11. Life of Josephus
    The Life of Josephus is an autobiography by Josephus, detailing his life and his role in the Jewish War. It provides insight into his perspective on the war and his eventual collaboration with the Romans.

Apocalyptic Literature

12. 2 Baruch
    2 Baruch (also known as the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch) is an apocalyptic Jewish text, written after the destruction of the Second Temple, that reflects the despair and hope of the Jewish people in the wake of their defeat.

13. 4 Ezra
    4 Ezra (also known as 2 Esdras) is another Jewish apocalyptic work written after the destruction of the Temple. It addresses questions about God’s justice and the fate of Israel, offering a vision of hope despite destruction.

14. Apocalypse of John (Revelation)
    The Apocalypse of John (Revelation) is the final book of the Christian New Testament. It contains apocalyptic visions of the end of the world, drawing heavily on Jewish apocalyptic traditions such as those in Daniel and the Book of Enoch.

Rabbinic Tradition

15. Yavneh
    Yavneh was a town where Jewish leaders, including Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, established a center of learning after the destruction of the Second Temple. It became the heart of Rabbinic Judaism and was critical in preserving Judaism after the loss of the Temple.

16. Mishnah
    The Mishnah is a foundational Jewish text that contains a compilation of oral laws and traditions. It was compiled around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah HaNasi and forms the basis for the Talmud.

17. Tannaim
    The Tannaim were the rabbis who taught and contributed to the Mishnah during the 1st–2nd centuries CE. Their legal rulings and teachings form the foundation of Rabbinic Judaism.

18. Amoraim
    The Amoraim were the rabbis who succeeded the Tannaim, contributing to the Gemara, the commentary on the Mishnah, during the 3rd–5th centuries CE. Their teachings were collected in the Talmud.

19. Gemara
    The Gemara is the rabbinic commentary on the Mishnah, forming half of the Talmud. It discusses and elaborates on the legal and ethical teachings found in the Mishnah.

20. Talmud
    The Talmud is a central text in Rabbinic Judaism, composed of the Mishnah and the Gemara. It discusses Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, and history.

21. Torah and "Oral Torah"
    The Torah refers to the first five Hebrew Bible books, considered the written law. The "Oral Torah" refers to the teachings and traditions passed down orally alongside the written law, eventually compiled in the Mishnah and Talmud.

Jewish Poetry and Liturgy

22. Piyyut
    A piyyut is a Jewish liturgical poem, often added to prayer services, particularly in the synagogue. These poems express deep spiritual and theological ideas and are an important part of Jewish worship.