French Revolution and Napoleon

The French Revolution: Beginnings and Overview

• Definition: The French Revolution was a significant uprising by the merchant class against France's political and economic systems, starting in 1789 and culminating in 1799 with Napoleon's rise to power.

• Timeline: The revolution was marked by intense violence primarily from 1789 to 1795.

• Key Events: Initially, the movement aimed to empower the merchant class but evolved into a radical push that included the execution of King Louis XVI in January 1793 and escalated warfare throughout Europe.

Causes of the Revolution

1. Enlightenment Ideas

• The Enlightenment spurred critical questioning among the populace, especially the merchant class, regarding:

  • The extent of monarchical power.

  • The church's role in governance and society.

2. Class Inequality

• Aristocracy Privilege: Nobility enjoyed substantial political power without taxation obligations, leading to resentment among the merchant and peasant classes.

• Legal Disparity: Laws favored the aristocracy, undermining the rights of the lower classes.

3. National Debt and Economic Strain

• Rising National Debt: Caused by costly wars (e.g., Louis XIV's conflicts, the French and Indian War, and the Franco-American alliance).

• Inflation and Bread Prices: The skyrocketing cost of bread, which was a staple food, severely impacted the merchant class and peasants, leading to hunger and riots.

• Bread Riots: Women disproportionately led protests against high prices, targeting bakeries and demanding fair prices.

Impact of Leadership

Louis XV

• Personal Issues: His notorious relationships impacted his reign and led to public scrutiny of his fitness as a ruler.

• Loss of Respect: His self-perceived unworthiness diminished the monarchy's reverence.

Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette

• Louis XVI's Disconnection: Despite wanting to engage in policy, he struggled to comprehend revolutionary sentiments.

• Extravagance of Marie Antoinette: Their lavish lifestyle worsened their image amidst an economically failing nation.

Estates General

1. Historical Context

• The Estates General functioned as an advisory body to the king and was rarely convened (last meeting in 1621).

• Called by Louis XVI in May 1789 primarily to address the national debt.

2. Structure and Function

• Composed of three estates:

  • First Estate: Clergy (paid no taxes).

  • Second Estate: Nobility (paid no taxes).

  • Third Estate: Commoners (underprivileged).

• Voting was traditionally done by estate, which disenfranchised the Third Estate.

Rise of National Assembly

1. Break from Estates General

• On June 17, 1789, after weeks of debate on voting methods, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, claiming authority to govern.

2. Tennis Court Oath

• On June 20, 1789, the National Assembly took a vow to not disband until a constitution was written.

• This marked a pivotal shift towards forming a constitutional monarchy.

Transition of Power

1. Legitimization of the National Assembly

• On June 27, 1789, the king grudgingly recognized the National Assembly's legitimacy, allowing for headcount voting, promoting a semblance of democracy.

2. Creation of the National Guard

• Established by the National Assembly as a militia loyal to the revolution.

• The revolution remained largely nonviolent, aiming for limited monarchy yet increasing power for the citizens.

Storming of the Bastille

• Date: July 14, 1789.

• Event: Parisians stormed the Bastille prison in search of ammunition, marking a violent turning point in the revolution.

• Outcome: The act against the king's authority led to increased revolutionary fervor, becoming a symbol of defiance.

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

• Date: August 26, 1789.

• This foundational document asserted civil rights and equality before the law for all citizens, impacting the power dynamics between the monarchy and the populace.

Women's March on Versailles

• Date: October 5, 1789.

• Event: Women, protesting bread prices, marched to Versailles, demanding action from the king.

• Significance: It exemplified grassroots activism and forced the royal family back to Paris, decreasing their autonomy.

Revolution Radicalization

1. Rise of More Radical Groups

• Sans culottes: Identifying with the working class, they rejected aristocratic fashion, symbolizing their alignment with revolutionary ideals.

• Militancy and assertiveness characterized this faction, leading to more profound revolutionary actions.

2. Role of Jean-Paul Marat

• A major advocate for radical ideas, Marat championed the execution of King Louis XVI through his powerful pamphlets, driving public sentiment towards extreme measures.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

• Goal: To control the Catholic Church's influence in France, which led to a reduction in clerical power and sympathetic backlash from peasants dependent on the Church.

King’s Attempt to Escape

• The royal family's failed plan to flee to Austria in June 1791 showcased Louis XVI's treasonous intentions and deepened public distrust in his commitment to the revolution.

Escalation to War

• In April 1792, fearing revolution's spread, revolutionary France declared war on Austria and Prussia, marking the start of war-oriented conflicts stemming from the revolution.

The Guillotine

• Shift in Execution Practices: The guillotine became a symbol of equality in death, applying uniform capital punishment to all classes.

• Institutionalized by Joseph Guillotin for efficiency during the growing number of executions amid revolutionary fervor.

Reign of Terror

1. Overview

• Period: April 1793 - July 1794; led by Robespierre, it emphasized terror as a means to preserve the revolution.

• Significant civilian casualties as the Committee of Public Safety executed thousands under the guise of protecting the revolution.

2. Robespierre’s Downfall

• His dictatorship culminated in paranoia; threatening government members led to his arrest and guillotine execution by July 28, 1794, ending his reign.

Shift Towards Moderation

• Post-Robespierre, the revolutionary government initiated moderation, drafting a new constitution establishing the Directory, which imposed land-ownership and tax prerequisites for voting.

Napoleon’s Emergence

1. Rise to Power

• Notable military success led him to seize authority, declaring the end of the revolution in November 1799.

• Positioned himself as First Consul within a façade of democracy but in reality, a military dictatorship.

2. Final Attempts at European Dominance

• Engaged in ambitious conquests across Europe until his defeat in Russia (1812) and subsequent abdication in 1814.

3. Exile and Death

• Exiled to Elba, then escaped only to be defeated at Waterloo (1815) and exiled to St Helena, where he died.

Conclusion: Legacy of the Revolution

• The French Revolution reshaped governance, social structures, and established notions of liberty and equality that resonate in modern democratic ideals.