The Wars of Religion in France and Europe

Overview of the Religious Wars in Europe

I. Introduction to Protestantism in France

  • Calvinism in France: Specifically, the Protestant movement that gained traction was Calvinism.

  • French Calvinists (Huguenots): The adherents of Calvinism in France were referred to as Huguenots.

  • Nobility Influence: Approximately half of the French nobility had converted to Calvinism, leading to increased tensions as they sought recognition and rights within predominantly Catholic France.

  • Charles IX: Came to the throne at the young age of 11. His mother, Catherine de Medici, was the de facto ruler until he came of age.

II. Catherine de Medici's Role

  • Catherine's Catholicism: Strongly devoted to Catholicism and viewed the power of Huguenot nobility as a threat to her authority.

  • Objective: Sought to eliminate Huguenot influence and suppress their demands for rights.

  • Start of the Wars of Religion: Initiated in 1562 following the massacre of Vassas, which was a violent attack against a group of Huguenots during worship.

III. The French Wars of Religion

A. Early Conflicts

  • Massacre of Vassas (1562): A Catholic duke ordered the killing of Huguenots during their worship.

  • Defensive Warfare: Huguenots engaged in defensive battles for the next decade despite not having enough strength to assume control.

B. Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

  • Context: Religious tensions seemed alleviated due to the marriage between Charles IX’s sister (Catholic) and Henry of Navarre (Calvinist).

  • Mass Murder: On the night of the wedding, persuaded by the Guise family's Catholic influence, Charles IX ordered the killing of Huguenots, resulting in a three-day massacre across Paris.

  • Henry of Navarre's Survival: Promised to convert to Catholicism to save his life, but later reverted back to Calvinism.

C. The War of the Three Henrys

  • Three Competing Henrys: Henry of Navarre, Henry of Guise, and Henry III fought for control of France, with shifting alliances over religious and political issues.

  • Succession and Assassination:

    • Henry III ascended in 1574 but faced challenges from Henry of Guise.

    • Assassination of Guise: Henry III collaborated with Henry of Navarre to eliminate the threat, leading to Guisse's assassination.

    • Henry III Assassinated: In 1589, he was killed, leaving Henry of Navarre to succeed as Henry IV.

D. Henry IV and the End of Wars

  • Conversion for Politics: Converted back to Catholicism to ensure stability and gain public acceptance, despite previous loyalty to Calvinism.

  • Edict of Nantes (1598): A major achievement facilitating religious toleration, recognizing Catholicism as France's state religion while protecting Huguenots.

IV. Spain's Role in Religious Conflicts

  • Spanish Habsburg Rule: Spain was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty known for an uncompromising Catholic stance.

  • Philip II's Ascendency (1556): Sought to counter Protestantism across Europe, particularly focusing on The Netherlands and England.

  • Ottoman Threat: Rebuffed Ottoman expansion into Europe with the help of allied forces.

A. Issues in The Netherlands

  • Calvinist Growth: Increasing Calvinist sentiments among the middle class, leading to tensions under Philip II's harsher policies.

  • Iconoclasm: Calvinists destroyed Catholic images, which sparked violent retribution from Philip II.

  • Independence: In 1581, William of Orange led Dutch Calvinists to declare independence.

B. Conflict with England

  • Elizabeth I's Policies: Engaged in supporting Protestant movements in The Netherlands, which antagonized Spain.

  • Spanish Armada Attempt: Philip II ordered assembled armada to invade England, which ended in failure, bolstering Protestantism in Europe.

V. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

  • Background: Emerged from religious and political tensions post-Peace of Augsburg (1555), which recognized only Catholic and Lutheran faiths, marginalized Calvinism.

A. Key Events Leading to the War

  • Defenestration of Prague: Catholic representatives were thrown from a window as a protest against re-Catholicization efforts by Ferdinand II, setting off the war.

  • Survival of the Officials: Legend surrounding their survival contributed to religious divides; viewed differently by Catholics (miraculous intercession) and Protestants (landing on manure).

B. Phases of the Thirty Years' War

  1. Bohemian Phase:

    • Conflict primarily against Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II.

    • Protestant forces suffered defeat at the Battle of White Mountain, leading to Catholic dominance in the Holy Roman Empire.

  2. Danish Phase:

    • King Christian IV of Denmark involved in the Protestant side, but Catholic forces prevailed.

  3. Swedish Phase:

    • Led by Gustavus Adolphus who achieved victories for Protestants, aided financially by France (despite France's Catholicism).

    • Began shifting motivations from religious to political due to Habsburg power dynamics.

  4. French Phase:

    • France's formal entry siding with Protestants, engaging primarily against Spain to curtail Habsburg power.

C. Conclusion of the War

  • Peace of Westphalia (1648): Marked significant outcomes:

    • End of religious wars in Europe.

    • Inclusion of Calvinism in the Peace of Augsburg as a recognized faith.

    • Decline of the medieval notion of a universal Christendom.

    • Weakened the Holy Roman Empire while strengthening individual state rulers.