AP Psychology Topic 2.3 - Introduction to Memory

EQ: How do the types, structures, and processes of memory work?

I. How Memory Works

Long-Term Memory - A more permanent storage system that can hold vast amounts of information for extended periods, often categorized into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memories.
Long-Term Potentiation - The process through which synaptic connections are strengthened over time, enhancing the efficiency of neural communication and playing a crucial role in learning and memory.
Short-Term and Working Memory - The temporary storage systems that hold information for brief periods, typically up to 30 seconds, and are essential for tasks such as reasoning, comprehension, and immediate recall.
Working Memory Model - A cognitive system that enables the manipulation and processing of information, consisting of components such as the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive, which coordinate the different types of information storage.
The Levels of Processing Model - This model posits that memory retention is influenced by the depth at which information is processed, proposing that deeper, more meaningful processing leads to more durable and accessible memories.

II. Key Terms

Automatic processing - Unconscious encoding of information such as time, space, and frequency, without deliberate effort.
Central executive - The control system in working memory that manages attention and coordinates information from other components.
Deep processing - Encoding based on meaning and associations; leads to better long-term memory.
Echoic memory - A brief sensory memory of auditory information, lasting about 3–4 seconds.
Effortful processing - Encoding that requires conscious attention and effort, such as studying or rehearsing.
Encoding - The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Episodic buffer - A component of working memory that integrates information across time and sources (visual, spatial, verbal) into a coherent episode.
Episodic memory - Memory of specific personal experiences and events, including time and place.
Explicit memory - Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall and declare (also called declarative memory).
Iconic memory - A brief sensory memory of visual information, lasting about 0.5 seconds.
Implicit memory - Memory that is retained without conscious awareness, like skills or conditioned responses.
Levels of processing theory - Suggests that deeper levels of processing (semantic, meaningful) lead to stronger, longer-lasting memories.
Long-term memory - The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Long-term potentiation (LTP) - A lasting strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity; believed to be a basis for learning and memory.
Memory - The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Multi-store model - A model of memory that divides it into three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Phonemic memory - Memory based on the sound of words; a shallower level of processing compared to semantic.
Phonological loop - A component of working memory that deals with spoken and written material, involving auditory rehearsal.
Procedural memory - A type of implicit memory for motor skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).
Prospective memory - Remembering to perform a task in the future, like taking medicine or going to an appointment.
Retrieval - The process of accessing stored information from memory.
Semantic encoding - The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
Semantic memories - Memory of facts, meanings, and general knowledge about the world (part of explicit memory).
Sensory memory - The brief initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Shallow processing - Encoding based on surface features like structure or appearance, leading to weaker memory traces.
Short-term memory - A memory store that holds a limited amount of information for a short period (about 15–30 seconds).
Storage - The process of maintaining encoded information over time.
Structural encoding - Encoding based on the physical structure or appearance of words, such as font or capitalization.
Visuospatial sketchpad - A component of working memory that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Working memory - An active system that processes and temporarily holds information for cognitive tasks like reasoning and comprehension.
Working memory model - A model (by Baddeley and Hitch) that breaks down short-term memory into multiple components, including the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.