Chapter 4: Human Development in Psychology

1. Learning Objectives

• Discuss human development across multiple dimensions:

  • Physical

  • Perceptual

  • Social Emotional

  • Cognitive

  • Moral

• Distinguish between growth and development and trace the stages of the human life cycle.

• Debate the influence of nature vs. nurture in human development.

• Identify developmental tasks and processes at each stage of human development.

• Determine adjustments needed to face challenges at various life stages.

2. Growth and Development

• Quantitative Changes: Measurable alterations over time (e.g., height, weight).

• Qualitative Changes: Transformational changes in quality (e.g., cognitive abilities, social skills).

3. Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature: Genetic heredity influences, passing physical and emotional traits through genes.

• Nurture: Environmental factors affecting development including caregiving, culture, and experiences.

4. Prenatal Development

• Prenatal Period: Development from conception to birth involving massive growth and differentiation into systems and structures.

  • Starts as a single cell (zygote) and becomes an embryo, then a fetus by the end of the second month.

• Environmental Influences:

  • Maternal Conditions: Diseases like rubella can cause defects; maternal malnutrition or drug use can impact health.

  • Emotional Impact: The mental state of the mother can influence the unborn child’s development.

5. Stages of Human Development

5.1 Infancy (Birth to 18-24 months)

• Characterized by extreme dependence on adults. Psychological activities emerge.

5.2 Early Childhood (18 months to 5-6 years)

• Transitional phase that culminates in the start of formal education.

5.3 Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 years)

• Corresponds to the elementary school years, gain independence.

5.4 Adolescence (10-12 years to 18-22 years)

• Transition from childhood to early adulthood, identity exploration.

5.5 Early Adulthood (Late teens to early thirties)

• Focus on establishing personal and financial independence.

• Key tasks include career development, intimate relationships, and family beginning.

5.6 Middle Adulthood (35-45 years to sixties)

• Age of significant life assessments and adaptations.

5.7 Old Age (Sixties to death)

• Involves reflections on life, possible health decline, and adjustments to retirement.

6. Motor Development Principles

• Cephalo-caudal Development: Head-to-foot development; control over upper body before lower body.

• Proximodistal Development: Center-outward; control gained over the torso before extremities.

7. Social Development

• Refers to how individuals develop the ability to form relationships and understand social dynamics throughout their lifespan.

• Gender Roles: Societal expectations for behavior based on sex; developed through social learning and cognitive understanding (Kohlberg's theory).

8. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)

• Stages:

  • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 18 months): Non-verbal intelligence and object permanence.

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Emergence of symbolic thought and language development.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years): Logical thinking about concrete events.

  • Formal Operational Stage (12 years+): Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning capability.

9. Psychosexual Development (Sigmund Freud)

• Stages of Development:

  • Oral Stage (0-1 year) - Erogenous zone: Mouth

  • Anal Stage (1-3 years) - Erogenous zone: Buttocks

  • Phallic Stage (3-6 years) - Erogenous zone: Genitals

  • Latency Stage (6-puberty)

  • Genital Stage (puberty onward)

• Each stage contributes to adult personality and unresolved conflicts can lead to fixation.

10. Psychosocial Stages (Erik Erikson)

• Focus on ego development through various social crises during an individual’s lifespan:

  • Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)

  • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler)

  • Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)

  • Industry vs. Inferiority (Grade School)

  • Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

  • Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)

  • Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

  • Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)

11. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

• Stages of Moral Development:

  • Level I: Pre-Conventional Morality - individual decisions based on consequences.

  • Level II: Conventional Morality - behavior aligns with social norms and expectations.

  • Level III: Post-Conventional Morality - guided by internal principles and social contracts.

12. Building Moral Intelligence (Michelle Borba)

• Focuses on virtues such as empathy, kindness, tolerance, and fairness to foster moral character.