**Behaviourism

Pioneering Work: Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
- Key Concept: Learning requires repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
- Conditioned Response (CR): Elimination of the conditioned response occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without the UCS, leading to extinction.
- Stimulus Generalization: Learned responses are extended to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus, with the intensity of the response increasing with greater similarity.
- Example:
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): Producing saliva to the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): food.
- Neutral Stimulus: Whistle.
- Process Prior to Conditioning:
  - UCS = food
  - CS = whistle (neutral)
- During Conditioning:
  - CS (whistle) + UCS (food) → CR (saliva + sound)
- After Conditioning:
  - CS (whistle) → CR (saliva)

Founder of Behaviorism (1878-1958)
- Belief: All human behavior results from the environment and experience.
- Known for: "The Little Albert experiment" demonstrating that fear can be conditioned in a child.

Watson's Student (1896-1987)
- Key Insight: If fear can be learned, it can also be unlearned.
- Example of Phobia Treatment:
- Subject: Peter (34) had a phobia of rabbits.
- Method: Gradual exposure led to a gradual diminishment of fear until it disappeared.

Key Contributor (1915-1997)
- Developed systematic desensitization as a treatment for phobias.
- Concept: To resolve a phobia, exposure to the feared object must be combined with an action or state that is incompatible with fear.

Core Concept: Behavior changes can be shaped by the consequences that follow behavior.
- Reinforcement: Maintains behavior.
- Positive Reinforcement (+R): Adding something positive to reinforce behavior.
  - Example: A child cleans their room and receives praise.
- Negative Reinforcement (-R): Removing something negative to reinforce behavior.
  - Example: Taking Tylenol to eliminate a headache.
- Positive Punishment (+P): Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior.
  - Example: Receiving a ticket for speeding.
- Negative Punishment (P): Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior.
  - Example: A teenager who breaks curfew has their phone taken away.
View of Learning: Individuals are considered passive learners who respond to environmental stimuli.
- Concept: Learner is viewed as tabula rasa (blank slate).
- Behavior is shaped through direct responses from the environment, with no need for mental processes or conscious thought.

Similar to all behaviors, abnormal behavior is viewed as learned through interaction with the environment. It is considered a faulty learning experience.
Treatment for Maladaptive Behavior: Change the individual's interaction with their environment.
Critiques of Behaviourism:
- Lack of interest in mental states or the brain's role in behavior.
- Considered an oversimplified model of human behavior.

Concept: Behavior is shaped by the surroundings and social environment, with a strong emphasis on learning from others.
Key Process: Individuals, especially children, learn by observing and imitating others.
1. Noticing a model's behavior.
2. Remembering the model's behavior.
3. Selectively reproducing the behavior that has been rewarded.
Emphasis on the importance of attention, memory, and behavior in the learning process.

Concept: When individuals face overwhelming stress, they may feel they have lost control over their lives, leading to feelings of helplessness, which can contribute to depressive tendencies.

Concept: The learned ability to maintain a positive outlook, even in adversity. Associated with positive psychological outcomes.

Notable critiques include the argument that early behaviorism placed too much emphasis on observable behavior while neglecting internal mental processes and cognitive elements that influence learning.