IV. Human Development (Chapter 9) 

A. Developmental Processes 

Developmental Psychology: Changes as one begins to develop 

• Physical: Growth and bodily changes. 

• Cognitive: Changes in thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving. 

• Socioemotional: Changes in relationships, emotions, and personality. 

B. Research Methods 

• Cross-Sectional: Comparing different age groups at the same time. 

• Longitudinal: Tracking the same individuals over time. 

C. Prenatal Development 

• Three Periods:  

• Germinal Period (0-2 weeks): 

• The fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes rapid cell division and implants in the uterine wall.  

Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks): 

• Major organs and structures begin to form (e.g., heart, spine, brain). The embryo is most vulnerable to environmental damage. 

• Fetal Period (9 weeks to birth): 

• Rapid growth and maturation of the organs. The fetus gains weight, and systems like vision, hearing, and movement develop. 

• Threats to the Fetus: Teratogens, drugs, alcohol. 

D. Infancy and Child Development 

1. Physical Development: 

1. Reflexes: Automatic responses such as the rooting reflex (turning head towards touch) and Moro reflex (startle response). 

2. Motor Skills: Gross motor skills (large movements like crawling) and fine motor skills (smaller movements like grasping). 

3. Brain Development 

4. Dendritic Spreading: The growth of new dendrites (branches of nerve cells) that help improve communication between neurons. 

5. Synaptic Density: The density of synapses (connections between neurons) increases, peaking during early childhood. 

2. Cognitive Development: 

1. Piaget’s Theory: Cognitive development occurs in four stages: 

2. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants learn through senses and actions (e.g., object permanence). 

3. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Development of language and symbolic thinking but limited by egocentrism and lack of conservation. 

4. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops, but only about concrete events and objects. 

5. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges. 

6. Assimilation:  interpreting one’s new 
   experiences in terms of an existing 
   schema 

7. Accommodation: new information 
   causes one to adapt schema to the new 
   info. 

Evaluating Piaget: Criticized for underestimating children's abilities and overemphasizing stages. However, Piaget’s theory is foundational in developmental psychology. 

Nativist Approach: Infants are born with innate cognitive abilities. Suggests that cognitive development is biologically determined. 

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Cognitive development is shaped by social interactions and cultural tools, emphasizing the role of language and collaborative learning (zone of proximal development, scaffolding) 

Information Processing Theory: Focuses on how children encode, store, and retrieve information. It compares the mind to a computer, analyzing input (stimulus) and output (response). 

3. Socioemotional Development: 

Temperament refers to the innate traits that influence how children interact with the world and regulate their emotions. 

Types of Temperament  

Easy: Generally happy, regular sleep patterns, adaptable, and calm. 

Difficult: Moody, irregular in sleep and eating, slow to adapt to new situations, often intense reactions. 

Slow-to-warm-up: Initially shy or cautious, 

Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: 

• Used to observe attachment in infants by assessing reactions to separations and reunions with caregivers. 

Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth): Secure, avoidant, ambivalent. 

1. Secure: Children show distress when separated but are comforted upon reunion (healthy attachment). 

2. Insecure-Avoidant: Children show little distress when separated and avoid the caregiver upon return. 

3. Insecure-Anxious/Ambivalent: Children become very distressed when separated and may show resistant behavior when reunited (ambivalence in comfort-seeking). 

Erikson’s Socioemotional (Psychosocial) Theory 

• Each stage has a psychosocial conflict that must be resolved. 

1. Infancy (Trust vs. Mistrust) 

1. Age: Birth to 1.5 years 

2. Developmental Task: If an infant's needs are dependably met by caregivers, they develop a sense of basic trust in the world. If not, they develop mistrust. 

3. Key Concept: The foundation for trust in relationships is established early. 

2. Toddler (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt) 

1. Age: 1.5 to 3 years 

2. Developmental Task: Toddlers learn to exercise their will and perform tasks independently. If encouraged, they develop a sense of autonomy; if discouraged or overly controlled, they feel shame and doubt about their abilities. 

3. Key Concept: Independence and self-control are critical. 

3. Preschooler (Initiative vs. Guilt) 

1. Age: 3 to 5 years 

2. Developmental Task: Preschoolers begin initiating tasks and carrying out plans. If they are supported in their efforts, they develop initiative. If their attempts are criticized or discouraged, they feel guilt. 

3. Key Concept: The development of initiative fosters a sense of leadership and decision-making ability. 

4. Elementary (Industry vs. Inferiority) 

1. Age: 6 years to puberty 

2. Developmental Task: Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks (e.g., school, hobbies). If they succeed, they develop industry. If they fail or face undue criticism, they feel inferior. 

3. Key Concept: Mastery of skills and a sense of accomplishment are important during this stage. 

5. Adolescence (Identity vs. Role Confusion) 

1. Age: Puberty to 20s 

2. Developmental Task: Adolescents work on refining a sense of self by testing different roles and integrating them to form a unified identity. If they fail to do so, they may experience confusion about their identity. 

3. Key Concept: Identity formation is crucial for a stable sense of self. 

6. Young Adult (Intimacy vs. Isolation) 

1. Age: 20s to 30s 

2. Developmental Task: Young adults struggle to form intimate relationships and gain the capacity for close, loving relationships. If they fail, they may experience isolation. 

3. Key Concept: The ability to form healthy, deep connections with others is a defining characteristic of this stage. 

7. Middle Adult (Generativity vs. Stagnation) 

1. Age: 40s to 50s 

2. Developmental Task: Adults focus on contributing to society and helping guide future generations, often through family or work. If they fail to find a sense of purpose, they may experience stagnation. 

3. Key Concept: Feeling a sense of productivity and contributing to the well-being of others is essential for fulfillment. 

8. Late Adult (Integrity vs. Despair) 

1. Age: 60s and beyond 

2. Developmental Task: Older adults reflect on their life. If they feel satisfied with their achievements, they develop integrity; if they regret missed opportunities or unresolved conflicts, they experience despair. 

9. Key Concept: A sense of accomplishment and peace with life leads to integrity. 

Parenting (Baumrind): 

Authoritarian: Strict, controlling, no explanations  

Children May have Lower self-esteem, poor social skills, anxious 

Permissive: Indulgent, few demands, little punishment  

Children may have Poor self-control, difficulty with rules, high behavioral problems 

Neglectful/Uninvolved: Disengaged, few rules or demands  

Children may struggle with independence, emotional withdrawal, risky behaviors 

Authoritative: Demanding and responsive, clear explanations  

Children have Higher self-esteem, social competence, academic success 

• Kohlberg’s Theory: Focuses on the progression through stages of moral reasoning, from self-interest to abstract principles of justice. It has been influential but criticized for being overly focused on justice, abstract reasoning, and a male-oriented perspective. 

• Gilligan’s Response: Offers a care-oriented perspective, suggesting that moral development for women (and some men) focuses on relationships and caring, rather than abstract justice. 

Current Research: Emphasizes the role of emotions, social context, and cultural influences in moral decision-making, challenging Kohlberg's cognitive-focused model. It also highlights the importance of moral identity in guiding moral behavior.