Developmental Psychology Final Study Guide

Parenting styles and its Effect on Children

Authoritarian Style: High in control, Low in Warmth

focuses on strict rules, obedience, and discipline. These parents have high expectations, and they don't hesitate to punish when children don't follow their guidelines.

take over the decision-making power, rarely giving children any input in the matter. Similar to an army drill sergeant, authoritarian parents are not nurturing, lenient, or communicable.

They make the rules and enforce the consequences with little regard for a child's opinion.

Child could struggle with: Social skills, Indecisiveness and trouble thinking on their own, Low self-esteem, Poor judge of character, Anger management and resentfulness, Hostility and aggression

“My way or the highway”

Authoritative Style: High in control, High in Warmth *

Considered the best parenting style

Authoritative parents provide their children with rules and boundaries, but they also give them the freedom to make decisions.

With an authoritative parenting style, parents validate their children's feelings while also making it clear that the adults are ultimately in charge. They invest time and energy into preventing behavior problems before they start.

Children raised with authoritative parenting tend to be happy, confident, and successful. They're also more likely to make sound decisions and evaluate safety risks on their own. Authoritative parenting is linked to academic achievement, heightened self-esteem, and resiliency

“Mistakes are a learning opportunity”

Permissive Style: Low in control, High in warmth

Permissive parents are lenient, only stepping in when there's a serious problem. They're quite forgiving. Oftentimes they act more like friends than authoritative figures

Permissive parents cater to their children's needs without giving out much discipline. When they do use consequences, they may not stick. For example, they'll give privileges back if a child begs

Kids who are parented permissively often act entitled, egocentric, and selfish. These children might also fail to put effort into school, work, or social endeavors since they don't have to put in any effort at home.

“Kids will be Kids”

Disengage Style (Neglectful): Low in control, Low in Warmth

neglectful parents ignore their children, who receive little guidance, nurturing, and parental attention. They don't set rules or expectations, and they tend to have minimal knowledge about what their children are doing

Uninvolved parents expect children to raise themselves. They don't devote much time or energy to meeting children's basic needs. At times, uninvolved parents lack knowledge about child development

Child could experience: Substance use, Rebelliousness, Delinquency, Lower cognitive and emotional empathy, Diminished self-esteem

SIDE NOTE:

Parenting style have an effect in development, they’re not inherit in our nature. Someone who grew up in an authoritarian household does not necessarily inherit that parenting style as well. Children of each parenting style could also grow up to be different from the norm

Dr. Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Early Childhood (0-6 years): This period is marked by rapid physical growth and development, significant language acquisition, and the beginning of social interactions. Key developmental tasks include motor skills development, forming attachment bonds, and beginning to develop self-concept.

Middle Childhood (6-12 years): Children in this stage develop more advanced cognitive skills and begin to understand complex concepts. They also develop better social skills, build friendships, and start to grasp moral reasoning. Schooling plays a significant role in their development.

Adolescence (12-18 years): Adolescence is characterized by puberty and the associated physical changes. Cognitive development continues, with improved abstract thinking and problem-solving skills. Socially, adolescents seek independence and form their own identities. Peer relationships and self-identity become central.

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4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2yrs)

At first, baby will not have an understanding of object permeance, meaning they do not realize that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. (BABY CAN PLAY PEEK-A-BOO) Although, this game helps infants learn about object permanence as they begin to understand that when an object is hidden, it still exists.

By the time baby is 2 years old, they will have developed object permeance. This means they can understand that hidden objects still exist, which is a crucial cognitive milestone in their development. During this stage, infants also engage in goal-directed behavior, showing the ability to coordinate their movements to achieve a specific outcome, such as reaching for a toy. Babies will also start to interact with their environment through their senses, typically through taste.

Think of: Peek-a-boo. Can the child understand that their play partner still exists when they are out of sight?

Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs) (Early Childhood)

During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols, but they do not yet understand concrete logic. They exhibit egocentrism, meaning they have difficulty in seeing perspectives other than their own. Parents can set up child’s belief system at this age since the child will not question things as much as they do in the next stage. Additionally, children in this stage often struggle with understanding the concept of conservation, which is the idea that quantity doesn't change even when its shape does, highlighting their developing cognitive abilities.

Centration- Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at one time

Egocentric- Inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view

Parallel Play- Children playing in same room together but independently

Animism- The belief that inanimate objects have human feelings and intentions

Think of: Mountain Test. Chicken on one side, truck on the other. Can the child understand that their play partner can see the chicken if they themselves can’t?
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs) (Middle Childhood)

In this stage, children gain a better understanding of mental operations and start thinking logically about concrete events. They can grasp the concept of conservation, realizing that quantity does not change even when its shape does, and become less egocentric, allowing them to consider other viewpoints. In the Concrete Operational Stage, children also develop the ability to classify objects into different sets and understand the relationship between different categories (rectangles & cylinders), which enhances their problem-solving skills. Children tend to lose bits of Animism at this stage. Side Note: Kate, a girl, still feels a sense of Animism when it comes to a babydoll, however Lee, a boy, no longer does. (could have to do with gender roles)

Conservation- Understand that objects can change appearance and still remain the same matter or quantity.

Classification- Able to group objects and dimensions that they share.

Think of: Glass of Water Test. Can the child understand that the amount of water remains the same, even when poured into two different shaped glasses?

Formal Operational Stage (12+ yrs)

Where Adolescent can apply logical thought to abstract problems. Includes the use of hypothetical deductive reasoning, the scientific method, and philosophy.

Think of: The Scientific Method. Can the child (person) form a hypothesis, identity variables, and analyze results using logic?

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Vocabulary & Definitions

Developmental stages: Piaget proposed four sequential stages of cognitive development, each marked by distinct thinking patterns, processing from infancy to adolescence.

Constructivist Approach to Learning: Children actively build understanding by exploring their environment as “little scientists” rather than passively absorbing information.

Schemas: Mental frameworks for organizing information, growing in number and complexity as children develop, enabling deeper world understanding.

Assimilation: The process by which individuals incorporate new information into their existing schemas (mental frameworks). For example, a child who knows what a dog is might initially call a cat a dog because it fits their existing schema (Dogs have fur so, cat must = dog)

Accommodation: The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new information. For example, the same child eventually learns to distinguish between a dog and a cat, creating a new schema for cats. (cat ≠ dog)

Equilibration: Process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to progress through cognitive stages, resolving conflicts and shifting to new throughs patterns.

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Autism

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication, social interaction, and behavior. Symptoms can range from mild to severe and may include difficulty with social interactions, repetitive behaviors, and challenges with communication. Early intervention and tailored support can help individuals with autism develop skills and improve their quality of life.

The following are a few behavior patterns that can appear within people with Autism:

• Performs repetitive movements, such as rocking, spinning or hand flapping

• Performs activities that could cause self-harm, such as biting or head-banging

• Develops specific routines or rituals and becomes disturbed at the slightest change

• Has problems with coordination or has odd movement patterns, such as clumsiness or walking on toes, and has odd, stiff or exaggerated body language

• Is fascinated by details of an object, such as the spinning wheels of a toy car, but doesn't understand the overall purpose or function of the object

• Is unusually sensitive to light, sound or touch, yet may be indifferent to pain or temperature

• Doesn't engage in imitative or make-believe play

• Fixates on an object or activity with abnormal intensity or focus

• Has specific food preferences, such as eating only a few foods, or refusing foods with a certain texture

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Socioemotional Development

Erikson’s Psychosocial Model of Development

Infancy:

Stage 1: Basic Trust Vs. Basic Mistrust (Birth-2 years)

• Strength: Hope

• Maladjustment: Withdrawal

• Example: A baby is consistently fed and comforted by their caregiver, leading to a sense of trust in their environment. Conversely, if the baby's needs are neglected, they may develop mistrust

Early Childhood:

Stage 2: Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 years)

• Strength: Control/Will

• Maladjustment: Compulsion

• Example: A toddler is encouraged to dress themselves and praised for their efforts, fostering a sense of autonomy. If they're overly criticized or not given the chance, they might feel shame and doubt in their abilities.

Stage 3: Initiative Vs. Guilt (3-5 years)

• Strength: Purpose

• Maladjustment: Inhibition

• Example: A child wants to play "doctor" and creates a mini clinic at home. If their initiative is supported, they'll develop confidence. If they're reprimanded or discouraged, they might feel guilt for trying new things.

Middle Childhood:

Stage 4: Industry Vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)

• Strength: Competence/Confidence

• Maladjustment: Inertia

• Example: A child who excels in school projects and receives praise from teachers and parents will feel industrious. Conversely, if their efforts are ignored or they face constant failure, they may feel inferior.

Adolescence:

Stage 5: Identity Vs. Identity Confusion (12-18 years)

• Strength: Fidelity (set of beliefs and values)

• Maladjustment: Repudiation

• Example: A teenager experiments with different roles, hobbies, and peer groups, ultimately forming a clear sense of identity. If they struggle to find where they fit in, they might experience role confusion.

Young Adulthood:

Stage 6: Intimacy Vs. Isolation (18-45 years)

• Strength: Love

• Maladjustment: Exclusivity

• Example: A young adult who forms a deep, committed relationship experiences intimacy. If they fear commitment or are unable to form close connections, they may face isolation.

Middle Adulthood:

Stage 7: Generativity Vs. Stagnation (45-70 years)

• Strength: Care

• Maladjustment: Receptivity

• Example: An adult volunteers in their community and mentors’ younger colleagues, feeling a sense of generativity. If they focus only on personal achievements and lack involvement in nurturing others, they might feel stagnant.

Late Adulthood (Senior)

Stage 8: Integrity Vs. Despair (70-85 years)

• Strength: Wisdom

• Maladjustment: Disdain

• Example: An elderly person looks back on life with a sense of fulfillment and integrity if they believe they lived well. If they have regrets or feel they missed opportunities, they might experience despair.

Stage 9: Transformation (85+ years)

• Strength: Wisdom

• Maladjustment: Despair

• Example: An elderly person who faces significant physical decline and loss may initially experience despair. However, with support and a positive outlook, they can find hope and faith, reflecting on their life with a sense of peace despite the hardships.

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Gender Stereotyping and Its Effect on Children

Gender stereotyping involves assigning roles, behaviors, and attributes to individuals based on their gender. These stereotypes can limit children's opportunities and affect their self-esteem and aspirations.

For example, girls may be discouraged from pursuing careers in STEM fields, while boys may be pressured to conform to traditional masculine roles, impacting their emotional expression and relationships.

Infants do not prefer gendered toys; it is by age 2 that they do. It is at this age that children can distinguish between boys and girls. Gender Stereotyping begins at ages 5-6.

Side Note: Boys tend to be more rigid about their interests aligning with “boy” stuff whilst girls are more flexible but still show a clear preference for “girl” stuff if it available.

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Gun Violence and Its Effect on Children

Exposure to gun violence can have severe psychological and emotional effects on children, including trauma, anxiety, fear, and desensitization to violence. It can lead to difficulties in concentration, decreased academic performance, and long-term mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Creating safe environments and providing support can help mitigate these effects.

In 2020, firearms surpassed car accidents as the leading cause of death for children and teens. Deaths due to firearm-related injuries — including death by homicide, suicide, or accident — were around 20% of all child and teen deaths in 2020 and 2021, the largest proportion in at least four decades.

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Adolescent Cognitive Development & Brain Development

During adolescence, the brain undergoes significant changes, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and reasoning. This development leads to improved cognitive abilities but also contributes to increased risk-taking behaviors due to an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex and heightened sensitivity to peer influence.

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Child Abuse and Its Effect on Development

Child abuse can have long-lasting effects on a child's physical, emotional, and psychological development. It can lead to behavioral issues, emotional instability, and difficulties in forming healthy relationships. Early intervention and support are crucial in helping abused children recover and develop resilience.

• Children may at times protect their abusers (typically if abuser is family)

• Often times kids will not report siblings’ abuse

• Any sexual experience with a child is considered abuse. A child CANNOT give consent

• Blaming oneself could provide a sense of control for victims. If the victim believes their abuse was their fault, then they could feel as if they can prevent further abuse if they do or don't do certain things. This mindset is unhealthy.

• Types of abuse include Physical abuse, Emotional abuse, Sexual abuse, and Neglect

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Bullying

Bullying involves repeated aggressive behavior intended to harm or intimidate. It can occur in various forms, including physical, verbal, and cyberbullying. The effects of bullying on victims include depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and decreased academic performance. Anti-bullying programs and support systems are essential in addressing and preventing bullying.

Simple Definition: When one person (or a group of people) targets a person with malicious intent

Side Note: Using an object to harm others is taken more seriously than implicating pain by using hands/legs. Causing harm to the head/face is taken very seriously

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Adolescent Risk-Taking

Adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as (but not limited to) substance use, reckless driving, and unprotected sex. This is due to the ongoing development of the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for impulse control and decision-making, and the influence of peers and the desire for independence. Education and supportive environments can help mitigate these risks.

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Adolescent Dating

Dating during adolescence helps develop social skills, self-identity, and emotional regulation. However, it also poses risks such as emotional stress, peer pressure, and potential involvement in unhealthy relationships. Open communication and guidance from parents and mentors can support healthy dating experiences.

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Effects of Divorce and Family Dynamics on Development

Divorce can have a significant impact on children's development, affecting various aspects of their emotional, social, and academic lives. Here are some key effects:

Emotional Impact: Children may experience feelings of anger, sadness, confusion, and guilt. They might blame themselves for the divorce or feel abandoned by one or both parents.

Behavioral Changes: Divorce can lead to behavioral issues such as increased aggression, withdrawal from social interactions, and difficulty concentrating in school.

Social Relationships: Divorce can affect children's ability to form and maintain friendships, leading to social withdrawal or acting out in social situations.

Family Dynamics: Changes in family structure can lead to conflicts, especially if parents have different parenting styles or if there is ongoing conflict between parents

Side Note: Kids, whose parents stuck together instead of divorcing, usually end up wishing they had and have worse developmental effects b/c of them staying together in the conflict

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Dr. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Earl Gardner- American developmental psychologist, b. July 11, 1943, creator of the theory of multiple intelligences (first introduced in his book Frames of Mind : The Theory of Multiple Intelligence 1983), he claims no one is born with all the intelligences they will ever have nor will someone have all 9 intelligences. 

1. Spatial Intelligence (visual)

Involves the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately, includes the ability to transform, modify, or manipulate visual information

Good at: Visualization, drawing, sense of direction, puzzle building, and reading maps

Jobs: Pilot, surgeon, architect, graphic artist, interior decorator 

2. Linguistic Intelligence (word/verbal)

Involves the ability to use language masterfully to express oneself and deals with sensitivity to the spoken and written language, ability to learn languages and capacity to utilize them to accomplish certain goals 

Good at: analyzing information, creating products involving oral and written language, speeches, books and memos 

Jobs: lawyer, speaker/host, author, journalist 

3. Logical Intelligence (mathematical/number/reasoning)

Involves the ability to use logic, abstractions, reasoning, and critical thinking to solve problems

Good at: analyzing problems logically, carrying out mathematical operations and investigating issues scientifically 

Jobs: Mathematician, accountant, statistician, scientist, computer analyst

4. Bodily Intelligence (Kinesthetic/body)

Involves using the body with finesse, grace, and skill. Includes physical coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, and flexibility.

Good at: sports, dance, acting, and physical crafts

Jobs: Dancer, Athlete, surgeon, mechanic, carpenter, physical therapist

5. Musical Intelligence (music)

Involves the ability to perceive, discriminate, create and express musical forms. Includes sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody and tone color. Refers to the skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.

Good at: singing, playing instruments, composing music and recognising musical details.

Jobs: Singer, composer, DJ, musician 

6. Interpersonal Intelligence (people/others)

Having the capacity to understand the mood, intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and to work effectively with others.

Good at: Communication and building rapport

Jobs: Teacher, psychologist, manager, salespeople, public relations

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (self)

Having the capacity to understand oneself, including one’s mood, desires, fears and capacities and using such information effectively in life

Good at: self-awareness, personal cognization, and refining, analyzing and articulating one’s emotional life. Can also help others understand their own life goals

Jobs: Therapist, psychologist, counselor, entrepreneur, clergy

8. Naturalistic Intelligence (nature)

Involves the ability to recognize and draw upon patterns in the natural environment such as the flora, fauna and phenomena in nature

Good at: classifying natural forms and recognizing numerous species

Jobs: Botanist, Biologist, astronomers, meteorologist, geologist  

9. Existential Intelligence (spiritual)

Involves the ability to delve into deeper questions about life and existences