Exam 3 Study Guide Flashcards

Chapter 11: Problem Solving

• What is problem solving?
  • Problem solving involves overcoming obstacles to reach a desired goal.
• IDEAL Framework: A structured problem-solving approach.
  • Identify the problem: Recognize the problem's existence and nature.
  • Define the problem: Understand the problem's scope, goals, and constraints.
  • Explore strategies: Brainstorm potential solutions and approaches.
  • Act on a strategy: Implement a chosen solution.
  • Look back and evaluate: Assess the effectiveness of the solution.
• Initial & Goal States:
  • Initial state: The starting point of the problem.
  • Goal state: The desired end result or solution.
• Well-Defined vs. Ill-Defined Problems:
  • Well-defined problems: Clear goals, starting point, and solution methods (e.g., solving a math equation).
  • Ill-defined problems: Vague goals, unclear starting point, and multiple possible solutions (e.g., designing a marketing campaign).
• Problem Definition: Understanding the components of the problem.
• Problem Space:
  • The mental representation of all possible states one can be in when solving a problem.
  • Consists of all possible actions and states from the initial state to the goal state.
• Algorithms & Heuristics:
  • Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution if followed correctly (e.g., a recipe).
  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that may lead to a solution but are not guaranteed (e.g., estimating travel time).
• Think Aloud Protocol:
  • Verbalizing thoughts while solving a problem to gain insight into cognitive processes.
  • Benefits: Provides rich qualitative data about problem-solving strategies.
  • Limitations: Can be time-consuming and may alter the problem-solving process.
• Trial-and-Error vs. Means-Ends Analysis:
  • Trial-and-error: Randomly trying different solutions until one works.
  • Means-ends analysis: Reducing the difference between the current state and the goal state by identifying and applying appropriate operators.
• Mental Set: A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, even if it's not the most efficient or effective.
• Functional Fixedness: The inability to see an object being used for something other than its typical purpose.
• Analogical Transfer:
  • Using the solution from a previous problem to solve a current problem.
  • Difficulty: Often requires recognizing the underlying similarities between problems.
• Isomorphic Problems: Problems with the same underlying structure but different surface details.
• Insight Problems: (Lectures & Textbook)
  • Problems where the solution appears suddenly and unexpectedly.
  • Characterized by an "aha!" moment.
• Insightful Solutions: (Lectures & Textbook)
  • Often involve restructuring the problem and breaking mental fixations.
• Insight & Incubation:
  • Incubation: Taking a break from a problem can sometimes lead to insight.
• Three-Process Theory of Insight:
  • Attentional (Selective Encoding), Reconstruction (Elaboration), and Evaluation.
  • Selective Encoding: Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information.
  • Combination/Elaboration: Combining information in novel ways.
  • Evaluation: Determining if the insight is correct to the problem.
• Novices vs. Experts:
  • Novices: Tend to use general problem-solving strategies.
  • Experts: Have a deep understanding of the problem domain and can use more efficient strategies.
• Improving Problem Solving:
  • Practice, seek diverse perspectives, break down complex problems.
• Fixation and Conformity: (Lectures & Textbook)
  • Fixation: Getting stuck on one way of thinking.
  • Conformity: Following the crowd instead of thinking independently.
• Overcoming Fixation: (Lectures)
  • Question assumptions, consider alternative perspectives.
• Mind-Wandering/Absentmindedness: (Lectures)
  • Can disrupt focused attention and hinder problem solving.

Chapter 12: Reasoning

• What is Reasoning?

  • Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from information.

• Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning:

  • Deductive reasoning: Drawing specific conclusions from general principles (guaranteed conclusion if premises are true).
  • Inductive reasoning: Drawing general conclusions from specific observations (conclusion likely but not guaranteed).

• Syllogistic Reasoning:

  • Evaluating whether a conclusion follows logically from two premises.

• Premises & Conclusions:

  • Premises: Statements assumed to be true.
  • Conclusion: A statement derived from the premises.

• Factors Influencing Accuracy:

  • Believability of the conclusion, wording of the premises.

• Conditional Reasoning:

  • Reasoning with "if-then" statements.

• Statements Used:

  • If P, then Q (where P is the antecedent and Q is the consequent).

• Single-Process vs. Dual-Process Theories:

  • Single-process theories: Assume one type of cognitive process is used for reasoning.
  • Dual-process theories: Assume two types of cognitive processes are used (Type 1 and Type 2).

• Probability Heuristics Model:

  • Reasoning is based on probabilities.

• Mental Models Theory:

  • Reasoning involves constructing mental representations of possible situations.
  • Limitations arise from the difficulty of representing all possibilities.

• Analogical Reasoning:

  • Using similarities between two situations to draw conclusions.

• 2-4-6 Rule Discovery Task:

  • Participants must discover a rule by generating number sequences and receiving feedback.

• Verification & Falsification Strategies:

  • Verification: Testing sequences that confirm the current hypothesis.
  • Falsification: Testing sequences that could disprove the current hypothesis (more effective).

• Dual-Process Framework: (Lecture & Textbook)

  • Type I Processes: Fast, automatic, and intuitive.

  • Type II Processes: Slow, deliberate, and analytical.

  • Contrasting the Two Processes:

    • Type 1 is intuitive, while Type 2 requires analytical thinking.

• Scientific Reasoning:

  • Systematic investigation of phenomena using observation, experimentation, and analysis.
  • Three Types of Claims:
    • Descriptive: Describe the characteristics of a phenomenon.
    • Causal: Explain the cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena.
    • Predictive: Forecast future events based on current knowledge.

Chapter 13: Decision Making

• What are Goals?
  • Desired outcomes or objectives.
• Positive Effects of Goals:
  • Increased motivation, focus, and persistence.
• General Model of Decision Making (Five Steps):
  1. Set Goals: Determine what you want to achieve.
  2. Gather Information: Collect relevant data.
  3. Structure the Decision: Organize the information.
  4. Make the Choice: Select an option.
  5. Evaluate: Assess the outcome.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts used to simplify decision making.
• Reason for Using Heuristics: Limited cognitive resources, time constraints.
• Stereotypes: Generalized beliefs about groups of people.
• Stereotypes Composition: Based on limited or biased information.
• Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype or stereotype.
  Example: Assuming a quiet person is a librarian.
• Availability Heuristic: Estimating the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
  Example: Thinking plane crashes are more common than car crashes because they receive more media coverage.
• Anchoring Effects: Over relying on the first piece of information received (the "anchor") when making decisions.
  Example: Negotiating a price starting with an initial offer.
• Framing Bias: How information is presented influences decisions.
  Example: Saying a surgery has a 90% survival rate vs. a 10% mortality rate.
• Loss Aversion Bias: People feel the pain of a loss more strongly than the pleasure of an equivalent gain.
• Ideal Decision-Making Model: (Idealized Model)
  • Rational and comprehensive analysis of all options.
  • Limitation: Unrealistic due to cognitive constraints and incomplete information.
• Elimination-by-Aspects Strategy: Gradually narrowing down options by eliminating those that don't meet certain criteria.
• Expected Utility Theory:
  • Decisions are based on maximizing expected utility (value).
  • Expected Utility =
    \sum_{i=1}^{n} (Probability \ of \ Outcome \ i * Utility \ of \ Outcome \ i)
• Prospect Theory: (Lectures & Textbook)
  • Decisions are based on potential gains and losses relative to a reference point.
• Prospect of Gains/Losses: (Lectures)
  • People are more risk-averse when considering gains and more risk-seeking when considering losses.
• Satisficing:
  • Choosing the first option that is "good enough" rather than searching for the optimal choice.
• Dual-Process Framework: Type I & Type II Processes (Lectures & Textbook)
  • Impact on Our Decisions:
    • Type I can lead to quick, intuitive decision. Type II is more suitable for complex and analytical decisions.
• Temporal Discounting:
  • The tendency to value rewards less as they are further in the future.
    Impact on Decision Making: Leads to prioritizing immediate gratification over long-term benefits.
• Decoy Effect:
  • Introducing an inferior option (the decoy) to make another option more attractive.
    Example: Adding an overpriced popcorn size to make the larger size seem like a better deal.
• Conjunction Fallacy: (Lectures)
  • Believing that the probability of two events occurring together is greater than the probability of either event occurring alone.

Chapter 14: Cognitive Development

• Habituation:
  • Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.
• Habitual Technique:
  Used to study infant cognition by observing how infants respond to novel versus familiar stimuli.
  Example: Detecting Facial Expressions
• Violation-of-Expectation:
  • Infants show surprise or increased attention when they witness an event that violates their expectations.
• Understanding Infant Cognition:
  • Helps us understand what infants know about the world.
• Language Development Process:
  • Babbling, single words, two-word phrases, complex sentences.
• Telegraphic Speech:
  • Two-word phrases that convey essential information (e.g., "Mommy juice").
• Interactionist Approach:
  • Language development is influenced by both biological and social factors.
• Role of Cues:
  • Infants use social cues (e.g., gaze direction, emotional expressions) to learn language.
• Implicit & Explicit Memory Development:
  • Implicit Memory: Develops early; memory without conscious recall (e.g., motor skills).
  • Explicit Memory: Develops later; memory with conscious recall (e.g., facts, events).
• Childhood Amnesia:
  • Inability to remember events from early childhood.
• Reason for Amnesia:
  • Immature brain development, differences in encoding and retrieval strategies.
• Influence of Knowledge on Memory:
  • Prior knowledge enhances encoding and retrieval of new information.
• Development Across Lifetime:
  • Working Memory: Increases in capacity and efficiency during childhood and adolescence.
  • Semantic Memory: Accumulates throughout the lifetime.
• Effects of Aging:
  • Episodic Memory: Declines with age.
  • Semantic Memory: Relatively stable.
  • Executive Functioning: Declines with age.
• Prospective Memory (PM): (Textbook)
  • Remembering to perform intended actions in the future.
• Younger & Older Adults Difference in PM:* (Textbook)
  Older adults often perform worse on time-based PM tasks.
• Reason for PM Difference:* (Lectures)
  Age-related decline in attentional resources and executive functioning.