Page 1: Bioethics and Moral Theories

Introduction to Moral Life

• Dynamic Nature: Moral life involves complex interactions with various moral values and judgments.

• Moral Judgments: We assess actions, character, and life quality based on moral standards.

• Moral Theories: Explore larger moral meanings behind actions and ethical principles.

Nature of Moral Theories

• Scientific Analogies: Just as scientific theories explain phenomena (e.g., germ theory), moral theories explain moral actions and character.

• Function: They help us understand what makes an action right or wrong.

• Examples:

  • Divine Command Theory: Right actions stem from God's commands.

  • Utilitarianism: Right actions maximize happiness for the most people.

• Distinction: Theories are more fundamental than specific moral principles or norms.

Moral Theorizing in Daily Life

• Pervasiveness: Theorizing is a natural part of moral discussions, often occurs unconsciously.

• Conceptual Tasks: Moral theorizing includes understanding terms like rightness and goodness, justifying principles, and resolving conflicts.

• Theories of Obligation: Focus on right vs. wrong actions (e.g., divine command and utilitarianism).

• Contrast with Virtue Ethics: Theories based on character and virtue are different from action-based theories.

Everyday Application of Moral Theories

• Direct Use in Arguments: Moral theories support specific arguments in ethical discussions (example: funding stem-cell research).

• Indirect Influence: Theories underlie moral principles which guide actions, like the prohibition against murder stems from respect for persons.

• Coherence in Deliberation: Moral reasoning involves balancing personal judgments and theory-based principles; inconsistencies signal the need for reevaluation.

Page 2: Impact of Moral Theories

Theoretical Influence on Arguments

• Moral Arguments: These often include moral claims based on established premises from moral theories.

• Utilitarian Premise Example: Support for actions based on the principle of maximizing benefit for the greatest number (e.g., stem-cell research).

Indirect Impact on Principles

• Supporting Principles: Principles can derive support from broader theories (e.g., respect for persons informing the prohibition against murder).

• Complexity in Reasoning: Moral theories don't dominate moral reasoning but provide a framework to engage with specific moral dilemmas.

Balancing Theory and Intuition

• Integration of Theory: When applying moral theories, both abstract guidelines and personal moral judgments must be assessed for coherence.

• Conflict Resolution: If theory contradicts personal judgment, a choice must be made on which to revise.

• Trust and Revisions: Consistency in judgments enhances confidence in moral decisions; reevaluation of theories may occur based on intuitive judgments.

Resources in Moral Life

• Respect for Personal Judgment: Individual judgments provide checks on theoretical applications, essential for bioethical discussions where theory and practice meet.

Page 3: Influential Moral Theories

Types of Moral Theories

• Consequentialist Theories: Focus on the consequences of actions.

• Deontological Theories: Emphasize duties and rules independent of outcomes.

• Examples:

  • Utilitarianism: Right actions maximize beneficial outcomes.

  • Deontological Ethics: Moral actions based on inherent duties regardless of outcome.

Utilitarianism

• Core Principle: Maximizing good over bad consequences for all involved.

• Types of Utilitarianism:

• Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates individual actions based on outcomes.

• Rule Utilitarianism: Bases evaluations on rules that generally produce good outcomes.

• Historical Figures:

• Jeremy Bentham: Founded classic utilitarianism focused on pleasure.

• John Stuart Mill: Described qualitative differences in pleasures; highlighted the role of higher pleasures in moral considerations.

The Doctrines of Classic Utilitarianism

• Impartiality Requirement: Consideration of all affected parties equally, not prioritizing one's own happiness.

• Scenarios: The application in consequentialist dilemmas like mercy killing and its implications in bioethics.

• Complex Issues: Example discussions around euthanasia, showcasing both act and rule-utilitarian perspectives leading to moral implications.

Page 4: Kantian Ethics and Other Theories

Kantian Ethics

• Core Concept: Morality based on rationality and universal maxims.

• Categorical Imperative: A central principle stating actions must be universalizable.

  • First Formulation: Act on maxims that could be willed as universal laws.

  • Second Formulation: Treat humanity as an end in itself.

• Relevance: Opposes utilitarianism, emphasizing duties over outcomes.

Other Ethical Theories

• Principlism: Aimed at balancing multiple moral principles to guide bioethics practice (e.g., beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice).

• Natural Law Theory: Ethical actions adhere to moral standards derived from nature's order, emphasizing rational discernment.

• Virtue Ethics: Focus on moral character and virtues rather than actions alone (e.g., Aristotle's position on flourishing).

Summary of Approaches

• Each theory offers unique perspectives on ethical dilemmas within bioethics, contributing to discussions about rightness and goodness in moral actions.