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Chapter 6 | Concepts of Culture
6.1 Introduction to Culture
Culture
Culture: The beliefs, values, practices, behaviors, and technologies shared by a society and passed down from generation to generation
Some elements of culture are easy to identify, such as clothing, food, and music.
Others may be less clear, such as attitudes and values.
Geographers use the metaphor of an iceberg to describe culture.
The “tip” is everything about a culture that can be seen at first glance, while the larger, submerged part of the iceberg is intimate knowledge of the culture that influences the rest.
At the tip of a cultural iceberg are material objects such as food and clothing, as well as language and shared practices.
Cultural trait: A shared object or cultural practice
Cultural traits can vary widely across regions and even within societies.
Artifacts: A visible object or technology that a culture creates
Artifacts change readily. Some objects are basic, while other can be used in cultural religion or societal expression, or even recreation.
Sociofacts: A structure or organization of a culture that influences social behavior
Sociofacts change slower than artifacts, and define the way people act around others, establishing the rules that govern behavior.
Mentifacts: A central, enduring element of a culture that reflects its shared ideas, values, knowledge, and beliefs
The slowest to change. These are typically religious beliefs and language.
Cultural Dynamics
Culture is socially constructed, which means it’s created by groups of people rather than individuals.
Culture is also dynamic: Subject to change, and transforming in response to countless environmental, human, and technological forces.
The speed at which culture changes varies from society to society, as well as depending on which value is being affected.
When Cultures Mix
Cultural change can occur when groups from one culture move to a place of another culture.
People may retain only a little or very much of their culture, while also taking on different amounts of the new culture.
Over time, immigrants may lose facets of their culture, or their cultural traits change and become different from those back home.
Cultural Norms and Differences
The effects of distance decay have been decreased through innovations in transportation in communication.
This allows people to be connected regardless of where they are in the world, and global travel is easier than ever.
This has led to rapid, far-reaching cultural changes.
Trends in music, dance, fashion, and food now bounce around the world in seconds.
Popular culture: The widespread behaviors, beliefs, and practices of ordinary people in society at a given point in time
Pop culture changes quickly now, thanks to globalization.
Traditional culture: The long-established behaviors, beliefs, and practices passed down from generation to generation
Cultural norms: A shared standard or pattern that guides the behavior of a group of people
In some countries, cultural norms are tightly governed to reduce them changing.
Some societies that require strong conformity may limit people’s exposure to pop culture by forbidding them from the internet and other forms of connectivity.
Societies with more relaxed cultural norms are more likely to embrace the influences of pop culture.
There is a wide range of attitudes toward cultural differences around the world.
Ethnocentrism: The tendency of ethnic groups to evaluate other groups according to preconceived ideas originating from their own culture
This can exist in varying degrees. Stronger ethnocentrism may include the belief that one’s own culture/group is superior, which can result in discrimination against other groups.
Cultural relativism: The evaluation of a culture by its own standards
This requires putting aside one’s own cultural criteria to understand the context behind the practices of another culture.
Critics of cultural relativism challenge the belief that it’s appropriate to accept extreme cultural practices such as violations of human rights.
They suggest that cultural relativism allows societies to go beyond what is morally acceptable, justifying extreme practices with cultural context.
6.2 Cultural Landscape
Defining Cultural Landscapes
A natural landscape that has been modified by humans, reflecting their cultural beliefs and values, is a cultural landscape.
Cultural landscape: A natural landscape that has been modified by humans, reflecting their cultural beliefs and values
A cultural landscape can give clues as to a culture’s practices and acts as a human imprint on the earth.
Identity: The ways in which humans make sense of themselves and how they wish to be viewed by others
Every landscape is a cultural landscape, and each one is shaped by unique human activities over time.
Humans have interacted with Earth’s natural landscapes and resources for thousands of years, creating varied cultural landscapes to meet their needs and express values, beliefs, etc.
Material expressions of culture can be evidence of how people live(d) to meet their needs and aspirations.
Agriculture can shape the land is ways that express how people provided food for themselves.
Early-20th-century geographer Carl Sauer saw cultures and societies as both developing out of and being affected by landscape.
He stated that geographers should first read a landscape to understand the culture it reflects.
For example, at the US-Mexican borderlands, the physical landscape is the same, but visual differences can be seen in land use, agricultural practices, and architecture.
Sauer also suggested that people need to understand the past to understand the present and future.
He subsequently said that a cultural landscape can inform one on the past cultural practices, fulfilling that need.
Sequent occupance: The notion that successive societies leave behind their cultural imprint, a collection of evidence about human character and experiences within a geographic region, which shapes the cultural landscape
Examples of Cultural Landscapes
Every landscape you encounter is a unique cultural landscape. Cultural landscapes ca undergo both slow and rapid changes.
These changes can be accelerated by human factors/processes (technology, industrialization, urbanization, globalization, sustainability initiatives, etc.)
Ethnic Neighborhoods
Ethnicity: The state belonging to a group of people who share common cultural characteristics
Large cities typically contain clusters of minorities, who may form ethnic neighborhoods.
Ethnic Neighborhoods: A cultural landscape within a community of people outside of their area of origin
Such as Chinatowns in multiple cities.
These are examples of how the history, tradition, and social practices of an ethnic group can transform a cultural landscape to meet the community’s needs.
Why do ethnic neighborhoods form?
Due to exclusion, segregation, discrimination can cause minorities to band together to preserve identity
Uniting in a certain area can help a cultural group set themselves apart to practice their customs in homogenous schools, religious centers, stores, and businesses.
Attitudes from the surrounding communities may draw visitors and businesses into an ethnic neighborhood, or contrastingly they may promote more discrimination against the neighborhood’s residents.
Traditional Architecture
Traditional architecture: An established building style of different cultures, religions, and places
Traditional architecture was originally inspired by the environment, localized needs, and materials on hand.
Traditional architecture tends to reflect local traditions, and usually evolves over time to show environmental, cultural, and historical context.
Traditional architectures can also combine to create new forms of architecture, retaining certain features of either original culture.
Postmodern Architecture
Postmodern architecture: A building style that emerged as a reaction to “modern” designs, and values diversity in design
First developed in the 60s and opposed the modern architecture movement that had destroyed historic buildings.
Postmodernism was, as historian Mary McLeod wrote, “a desire to make architecture a vehicle of cultural expression.”
In contrast to restrictive modernism, postmodern architecture valued the diversity in design and stated that universally enjoyable public spaces are important.
Urban skylines can reflect a robust economy.
Skylines make the most effective use of space in a crowded city and can show the local culture’s admiration of the values of ambition and success through the architecture applied to the buildings.
Landscapes of Religion and Language
Each diverse cultural landscape contains evidence of how it has been constructed to reflect it’s inhabitants.
Cultural practices may be seen in the land use, types of housing, transportation systems, or other features.
Religion and language leave distinct and identifiable imprints on almost any cultural landscape.
Religion
Religion: A system of spiritual beliefs that helps form cultural perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and values
Can be a motive behind observable cultural behaviors and practices.
These deep cultural foundations may be less visible, but religion still impacts cultural landscapes significantly.
Religion is a mentifact and very slow to change, because it is central to the shared beliefs and ideas of a group. It is also reflected in the socio/artifacts of a group’s culture.
Immigrants tend to adopt the language and some other cultural traits of their new country/location, but typically uphold their original religious beliefs and practices.
A person’s religion reflects their core beliefs, which contributes to their cultural values and identity.
There is a strong connection between religion and ethnicity-- the effects of both are evident in an ethnic group’s lifestyle and value system.
Some major world religions are so closely connected to the cultural identities of certain countries that it is difficult to think of the country without immediately associating it with the religion.
For example: Buddhism and Thailand, or Hinduism and India
Each religion has a different spatial organization. The practices of the religion influence where the culture worships, subsequently affected the architecture of said places.
Members of some religions assemble for congregational worship, others worship individually or in small groups.
Similarly, some religions may require all followers to worship at the same time, while others may have less or no time restraints.
The Kaaba is considered to be the most sacred Islamic shrine and plays a large role in the religion. Wherever a Muslim is in the world, they make sure to face the Kaaba during their five daily prayers.
Adult and capable Muslims are expected to make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca call the hajj.
Pilgrimage: A journey to a holy place for spiritual reasons
Contrastingly, the temples of Hinduism are devoted to certain gods, rather than providing places for congregational worship.
Hindus themselves practice individual worship, alone or with family, and perform rituals that can include offerings or chanting.
Language
Language: A distinct system of communication that is the carrier of human thoughts and cultural identities
Each distinct system of communication has a significant imprint on the cultural landscape people inhabit, linking language to sequent occupance.
Nearly all languages have a literary tradition, or some form of written communication.
Visible language is a clue to the identities of people who who live in that area, and it threads it’s way into daily life such as in the form of street signs and place names.
These uses of language often reflect the linguistic heritage of a particular geographic location.
Toponym: A place name
Toponyms help define what is unique about a place.
A place can be named for it’s physical features, it’s history, or a person that relates to the location is some way.
6.3 Identity and Space
Shaping Space Through Identity
Identity is how humans make sense of themselves and how they wish to be viewed by others.
Culture, ethnicity, and gender are major factors that establish a person’s identity.
Identity affects how people occupy space in society, shape the cultural landscape, and use the land and it’s resources.
The artifacts in a person’s workspace or home can tell you a lot about a person’s life. Photographs, books, artwork, and technology can reveal what a person values.
On a broader scale, neighborhoods reflect the cultural attitudes of residents.
Landscape Features and Identity
Homes within neighborhoods can display features of the people that live in them.
People use landscapes to communicate their religious beliefs, such as idols or sigils.
Land and Resource Use
The way land and resources are used can also contribute to a cultural landscape.
For example, the Amish have large plots of land that they use as farmland, and certain Old Order Amish refuse modern conveniences such as cars, trucks, and farming equipment.
The Inupiat people live on the North Slope, and Arctic coastal plain, and they use their land to hunt marine and land mammals, fish, and birds to feed their population.
Hunting also acts as a way to pass down tribal knowledge.
Women and Gendered Spaces
In societies that have strict gender rules, certain spaces may be designed and incorporated into the landscape to accommodate roles.
Gendered spaces: A space designed and deliberately incorporated into the landscape to accommodate gender roles
Depending on the cultural/societal factors that established the space, they can be supportive and positive or restrictive.
Historically, gendered spaces have been more restrictive for women than men.
Traditional gender roles often keep women from participating in certain aspects of society and push them to fulfill cultural expectations that can be limiting.
In the rural areas of some countries, gender differences tied to laws or cultural beliefs about land ownership can influence land use.
For both men and women, gendered spaces can be inclusive or exclusive.
Urban planners all over the world recognize that women experience city life differently than men.
Women tend to place more important on safety than men, because they are typically more at risk for targeted violence. This has influenced how spaces are designed, as women prefer well-lit parks and parking areas.
Some policies have even combat this issue by making entirely men-prohibited areas, like transportation for women and children only in Mexico City.
Gendered spaces can offer women more than just physical safety, but emotional safety as well.
In some cultures, women are discouraged from sharing their opinions and struggles, so spaces are created where they are free to just that.
When the societal conventions related to a gendered space are broken, the transgressors can be attacked or reacted to negatively.
Geographers can use spatial analysis and maps to identify and highlight gendered spaces. Mapping gendered spaces can reveal patterns that might otherwise be overlooked.
LGBTQIA+ Spaces
Gender identity: An individual's innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both, or neither
Someone’s gender identity can be the same or different from what sex they were assigned at birth.
Many factors contribute to a person’s gender identity, which can include a culture’s mentifacts.
The gender someone associated with can also be different from the gender they are perceived to be by society, which can greatly affect how they participate and shape the cultural landscape.
The LGBTIA+ community is a broad group of people whose gender identity and/or sexuality do not fall within “traditional” cultural norms.
This community celebrates diversity, pride, and individuality, and provides many spaces for members to feel safe and accepted.
Over the years, the acronym has evolved, but LGBTQIA+ stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, intersexual, asexual/aromatic/allied, and the plus sign includes anyone else not explicitly included that also have nontraditional gender identities/sexualities.
Safe Spaces and Neighborhoods
Safe spaces: A space of acceptance for people who are sometimes marginalized by society
These spaces have been created by social media, school-based groups, sports leagues, and performance groups.
Safe spaces exist in larger, more traditional landscapes where LGBTQIA+ people can share interests and experiences with others in the community.
There are a number of urban neighborhoods that have created many safe spaces for LGBTQIA+ people.
These communities developed years ago when gays and lesbians moved into and renovated them to be free of discrimination.
However, now some of these places are attracting more and more people from outside the LGBTQIA+ community, and improvements that drive up cost-of-living has led to gentrification.
Gentrification: The renovations and improvements conforming to middle-class preferences
Some LGBTQIA+ businesses have subsequently been forced out of their neighborhoods, changing the cultural landscape.
Third place: A communal space that is separate from home (first place) or work (second place)
In all communities, having a physical third place is important; individuals need social spaces where they can develop a sense of self, let their guard down, and form relationships with others.
This is especially important for LGBTQIA+ people and groups like them, who often feel marginalized by mainstream society.
6.4 Cultural Patterns
Sense of Place
Sense of place: The subjective feelings and memories people associate with a geographic location
As memories and stories of a place change over time, an individual’s sense of that place will also change.
Hearing new stories about a place, even if you know it well, can change some perspectives on the place, or at least add to knowledge about it.
Even fictional stories relating to a place can impact someone’s sense of it.
Placemaking: A community-driven process in which people collaborate to create a place where they can live, work, play, and learn
Placemaking facilitates creative patterns of use of a landscape, and in turn the landscape reflects the culture, feelings, experiences, and perceptions of the people who use the place.
Placemaking is a dynamic process that adapts to the needs of the physical, cultural, and social identities that participate in defining and using a specific place.
People’s sense of place can shape their identity.
For example, a resident of South Boston can also identify as a New Englander.
Each perceptual region has distinct environmental, cultural, and economic features that cause people to perceive it as unique from the others.
Language, Religion, and Ethnicity
Language, religion, and ethnicity are all very important to culture and it’s landscape, so unsurprisingly, they also contribute to a person’s sense of place.
The distribution of cultural traits creates unique landscapes with which people identify.
Language, religion, and ethnicity all work together to form regions.
Linguistic Patterns
Languages and words play a crucial role in the establishment of landscape.
The speech patterns of a group distinguishes them from others within a geographical area and can shape their sense of place.
Within a single language there may be wide variations in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
These differences can give clues as to region, migration/settlement patterns, and historical development.
Dialects: A variation of a standard language specific to a general area, with differences in pronunciation, degree of rapidity in speech, word choice, and spelling
Unique ways of speaking contribute to the cultural landscape and become part of the regional identity.
In addition to geographic location, social factors such as class, race, or ethnicity can also impact language patterns.
Certain places in the world have more involved language structures in which language use, identity construction, and place formation are intertwined.
Religious Patterns
Religions tend to organize space according to how the religion itself is organized, its beliefs, and how it is practiced.
Adherents: A person who is loyal to a belief, religion, or organization
Some religions appeal to people all over the globe, while others appeal to a specific ethnic group living in particular regions.
Religions are often organized into smaller groups including branches, denominations, and sects.
Branch: A large fundamental division within a religion
Denomination: A separate church organization that unites a number of local congregations
Sect: A relatively small group that has separated from an established denomination
Religions can transition from these types of organizations to the next as its prominence waxes and wanes.
Places of worship are closely related to how a religion is practiced, and they also represent a physical connection between religion and the cultural landscape.
Places of worship are sites where worshipers sometimes gather or have spiritual significance or power.
Patterns related to the selection of sacred places contribute to a regional cultural landscape and can be expressed through interactions with the natural environment, human-made features or design, and even through culture and lifestyle.
Ethnic Patterns
Patterns of ethnicity are deeply linked to religion and language.
As people associate other features with their ethnic group, those features become synonymous with their ethnic culture and affect the landscape.
Historically, three major ethnic groups formed clusters in particular regions in the United States: Hispanics in the Southwest, African Americans in the Southeast, and Asian Americans in the West.
Over time, these patterns have changed through migration and new immigrant flows.
The U.S. population overall has been moving southward and westward in recent decades.
However, certain ethnic patterns in the United States have prevailed and continue to enhance the placemaking of the region.
Africa is made up of more countries than any other continent, and its cultural landscape is that of hundreds of ethnic groups.
Some of these groups existed prior to colonialism, and others emerged due to it.
When Europeans colonized Africa, they divided the land for their own purposes, splitting some groups and/or forcing completely different ones to live together.
This forced Africa into a period of intense environmental, political, social, and religious change.
The cultural tensions created by this politically motivated restructuring created deep strains and tumultuous conflict that still exists today and has become part of the global cultural landscape.
Patterns of Unity and Division
Centripetal force: A force that unites a group of people
Cultural traits act as centripetal forces when they create solidarity among a group of people and provide stability.
A common language or a popular national sport can unite citizens.
Centrifugal force: A force that divides a group of people
A state with two or more ethnic groups aiming for their own political status and wishing to separate and form their own country can be a dominant centrifugal force.
Centripetal Forces
Shared religion, language, or ethnicity can create a shared sense of identity, which can act as a centripetal force.
Even very diverse cultures can have centripetal forces holding them together.
A dominant religion can be an extremely strong centripetal force.
Similarly, a shared language helps unify people by facilitating communication.
A shared ethnicity can also bind people together.
Centrifugal Forces
Religion, language, and ethnicity—which were just identified as centripetal forces—can also act as centrifugal forces under different circumstances.
Because language is so critical to communication, having several languages within a country can be a dividing force.
Ethnicities are often extremely divisive as well.
Conflict between ethnicities in many parts of the world has escalated to genocide or ethnic cleansing.
