College Psych Unit 2 (Memory)

Memory and Forgetting

Quote by Primo Levi:"The memories which lie within us are not carved in stone; these memories become erased or change over time and can incorporate new features."

Essential Question

• What roles do memory and thinking play in our behaviors?

Types of Memories and Their Reliability

• Daily details (e.g., dinner menus, clothing worn) fade over time, leading to gaps in recollection and potential inaccuracies.

• Emotional memories (e.g., first kiss, childhood events) tend to be more vivid due to their emotional significance but may not accurately represent reality or may be influenced by subsequent experiences.

• Trust in memories is questionable as they can be distorted due to influences such as suggesting new information or the original context of the memory.

What is Memory?

• Memory: Psychological term for the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information that persists over time, involving both conscious and unconscious processes.

Memory Demonstrations

• Demonstration Activity: Involves a list of related words (e.g., "bed, night, comfort"). Participants observe how they recall related words (e.g., "sleep") that were not part of the original list due to the brain’s schema activation.

• Schemas: These are cognitive frameworks that help individuals organize and understand information. For example, schemas can be activated by shapes (like cloud shapes) or by geographic locations, influencing memory and interpretation of new information.

• Impact of Schemas: Schemas lead to influences on perception, attention, and memory retention, either enhancing recall or contributing to distortions.

Information Processing Model of Memory

• Three steps in memory processing:

  • Encoding: The brain transforms sensory input into a usable form for storage. This process involves attention and perception. (Between short term and long term memory)

  • Storage: Involves the manipulation and rehearsal of information, allowing it to be retained in memory over time.

  • Retrieval: The process of accessing stored memories, which can be influenced by cues and context.

• Parallel Processing: The brain interprets multiple sensory stimuli simultaneously, filtering information based on prior experiences and schemas.

Multi-Store Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

• Sensory Memory: A temporary memory system that processes sensory information for a very brief duration (0.5-3 seconds), which includes iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Capable of retaining small amounts of information (about 7 items, based on Miller's Law) for up to 20 seconds. It is particularly sensitive to interference from other incoming information.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information indefinitely based on its perceived importance. Information must undergo encoding to enter this memory stage.

• Stimuli hit sensory neurons and go to sensory memory, then they are either paid attention to or forgotten

  • If paid attention to, they go to short-term memory

  • Rehearsal of short-term memory leads to the information being coded for storage in long-term memory

  • Long-term memory can be retrieved and go back into short term memory

• Sensory memory (lasts for a few milliseconds to a few seconds) to short term memory (lasts 15-30 seconds, ~7 items stored) to long term memory (lasts for years to decades, unlimited amount of items stored)

Long-Term Memory Types

• Three Types of Long-Term Memory:

  • Episodic Memory: A type of LTM that involves recollections of personal life experiences, events, and specific situations (e.g., birthdates, vacations).

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts that are not tied to personal experiences (e.g., knowing historical dates, mathematical concepts).

  • Procedural Memory: Involves the memory for the performance of particular types of actions or skills (e.g., riding a bike, typing).

Explicit and Implicit Memories

• Explicit Memories (Declarative): Involves conscious recollection of facts and experiences (e.g., recalling your last birthday).

• Implicit Memories (Nondeclarative): Skills and tasks learned over time, which can be recalled unconsciously, memories retained without conscious awareness and effort (e.g., knowing how to swim even if you are not consciously thinking about it).

  • Involves priming (using cues to activate hidden memories)

  • Involves automatic processing (“muscle memory,” actions or knowledge that is repeated so often that you no longer have to think about doing it)

• Priming: A technique where cues activate hidden memories, influencing perceptions and recall (e.g., being able to complete the word "ap" as "cap" or "tap" depending on prior context).

Characteristics of Short-Term Memory

• Limited Capacity: Approximately 7 items can be actively retained at once (Miller's Law).

• Chunking: Organizing information into manageable groups to enhance retention. For instance, grouping historical dates (e.g., 1776, 1812) together for easier recall.

• Rehearsal: Techniques such as maintenance rehearsal (repeating information) prolong the presence of information in STM.

Characteristics of Long-Term Memory

• Capacity: Unlimited storage capacity for an unlimited duration.

• Processing Levels:

  • Shallow Processing: Involves basic memorization without deep understanding, typically leading to quicker forgetting.

  • Deep Processing: Requires meaningful analysis and connections, leading to stronger retention of information.

Key Memory Concepts

• Recognition vs. Recall:

  • Recognition entails identifying learned material (e.g., multiple-choice tests), whereas recall involves retrieving information without direct cues (e.g., essay questions).

• Prospective Memory: The ability to remember to perform intended tasks in the future, crucial for effective functioning.

• Inattentional blindness = Inability to notice things that are clearly visible because you aren’t paying attention

• Working Memory: A limited capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information needed for cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.

• Context Dependent vs State Dependent and Mood Dependent Memories: -

  • Context Dependent Memory: Retrieval is enhanced when a person is in the same context (environment or situation) during both the encoding and retrieval of the information.

  • State Dependent Memory: Memory retrieval is improved when an individual's internal state (e.g., mood, physiological state) at retrieval matches their state at the time of encoding.

  • Mood Dependent Memory: Recall is more effective when a person's mood during retrieval is the same as when the information was initially learned. This implies that emotional states can serve as cues for memory retrieval.

Memory Reconstruction and Trust

• Memory can be altered by schemas, perceptions, expectations, and the introduction of new information, leading to inaccuracies in recall.

• State-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is enhanced when a person is in the same context or physiological state as they were during encoding.

• Tip-of-the-Tongue State: A moment of knowing that a memory is accessible but cannot be retrieved.

• Serial Position Effect: The tendency to better remember the first and last items in a list (primacy and recency effects) compared to those in the middle.

Forgetting

• Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve: Demonstrates that memory rapidly declines shortly after learning, often due to encoding failures.

• Memory Cues: External stimuli that can trigger recall enhance the retrieval process, aiding memory strength.

• Trace Decay Theory: Suggests that memories weaken and fade away over time without active rehearsal.

• Anterograde vs Retrograde Amnesia:

• Anterograde Amnesia:

  • Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

  • Can remember events before the incident but struggles to recall new information.

  • Often associated with damage to the hippocampus.

• Retrograde Amnesia:

  • Inability to recall memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

  • New memories can still be formed after the incident, but earlier experiences are lost.

  • Often occurs due to brain injuries, trauma, or conditions affecting memory retrieval.

Theories of Interference

• Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the recall of newer information (e.g., learning a new phone number while remembering the old one).

  • Pro = trouble remembering new information

• Retroactive Interference: New memories impede the recall of older ones.

  • Retro = trouble remembering old information

Unreliable and False Memories

• Flashbulb Memories: Highly vivid recollections of significant events that can still be inaccurate upon reflection.

• Eyewitness Testimony: Recognition of events but may be flawed; influenced by leading questions or misinformation (Loftus studies).

• Source Amnesia: The phenomenon where individuals remember the content of a memory but forget its origin, potentially contributing to false recollections.

Techniques for Improving Memory

• Distributed Practice: Spreading out study sessions enhances retention better than massed practice (or cramming).

• Priming and Associative Learning: Using concept maps or mind maps activates related ideas and reinforces memory connections.

• Organize Information: Chunk related information together to facilitate easier recall.

• Feedback and Testing: Engaging in self-quizzing promotes long-term retention and helps reinforce memory pathways.

• Minimize Distractions: Creating a distraction-free study environment and ensuring adequate sleep significantly aids memory consolidation.

• Use Mnemonics: Employ memory aids such as acronyms, narratives, and visual imagery to enhance memorization and recall efficiency.