Unit 7: Learning

Definition: relatively permanent change in behavior due to some sort of experience

• Takes actual experience instead of an instructional, classroom based environment to truly learn something

• Associative Learning - learning that when two events occur together, they are somehow connected

  • Ex: when lightning is followed by thunder repeatedly, we learn that they are usually connected and occur at the same time

• Combines knowledge and experience most of the times

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

• First researcher to study what is now known as classic conditioning

• Physiologist who was in the process of collecting dog saliva for search

  • To get the saliva, he gave them meat so they would salivate

  • A bell would ring and then Pavlov would get the meat for the dogs

  • After several days, the dogs started to salivate when they heard the ebell only

• People can be classically conditioned to respond automatically to certain stimuli

Five Components

These components can be divided into conditioned (has been taught or learned) and unconditioned (the stimuli happens naturally and did not need to be taught)

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus in the environment that naturally or automatically causes a reaction

  • Ex: the meat presented to Pavlov’s dogs naturally caused a reaction

• Unconditioned Response (UCR) - an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus

  • Ex: the natural response of Pavlov’s dogs to the meat was to salivate

• Neutral Stimulus (N) - a stimulus that should not cause a response

  • Ex: the bell should not have caused a response for the dogs normally

  • After repeatedly pairing the neutral Stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus, classic conditioning leads to an association between the two stimuli

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a stimulus that one has learned to respond to

  • Ex: Pavlov’s dogs were trained to salivate when they encountered the bell

• Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned response which happens automatically when presented with the conditioned stimulus

  • Ex: Pavlov’s dogs learned to automatically salivate when they encountered the bell which has been paired with food

3 Things to Ask About Every Classic Conditioning Example:

• What is the stimulus that causes a response automatically?

  • Tells you what your UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS is

• What is the automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus?

• Which stimulus should not cause anything?

• The conditioned response and the unconditioned response will ALWAYS be the same

• Acquisition - the moment that the neutral stimulus has become the conditioned stimulus

  • The learning has occurred, and has clicked

Operant Conditioning

Definition: learning through reinforcements and punishments

Edward Thorndike

• First to study what is now known as operant conditioning

• Sought to examine the changes in behavior when a reward was presented for an action

• Locked cats in puzzle boxes, and in order to escape the box, they had to hit certain levels

• Developed the law of effect, where rewarded behavior will be repeated

B.F. Skinner

• Also studied operant conditioning

• Popularized the research on operant conditioning, coming up with many of the vocabulary used to discuss it today

• Put rats and pigeons in operant chambers (sometimes called Skinner boxes)

  • He could control the release of food pellets

  • He made levers available to animals that, when properly operated, caused the release of food pellets

• The actions by the animals would then reinforce the behavior that led to it based on the reward

Types of Reinforcers

• Reinforcer - anything that increases the likelihood that an individual will repeat a behavior

  • Can be anything

Positive Reinforcement

When something desirable is added in order to increase the likelihood of the occurrence of a behavior.

• Ex: you get a good grade, you get money

Negative Reinforcement

When something undesirable is removed in order to increase the likelihood of the occurrence of a behavior

• Ex: when you buckle your seatbelt, the annoying seatbelt alarm goes away

• NOT the same as punishment

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that are necessary for survival

• Ex: Water is a reinforcer because it is required for people to live

Secondary Reinforcers

Stimuli that we do not need to survive

• Ex: an Xbox is not necessary for survival

Immediate Reinforcement

When reinforcers are provided immediately after the behavior is demonstrated

• Ex: rats received the food pellet immediately from Skinner

Delayed Reinforcement

When reinforcers are provided at some extended point after the behavior is demonstrated

• Ex: getting paid every two weeks

Continuous Reinforcement

When reinforcers are given every time a behavior is demonstrated

• Ex: getting an allowance each week for vacuuming the house and taking out the trash

Partial Reinforcement

When reinforcers are given sometimes when the behavior is demonstrated

• Can keep the behavior going longer than continuous reinforcement

• Ex: getting a 5 dollar bill periodically for a good grade on a test

Punishment Types

Punishment - anything that decreases the likelihood that an individual will repeat a behavior

• Ex: getting placed on the bench for having a bad attitude during a game

Positive Punishment

When something unpleasant is added in order to decrease a behavior

• Ex: spanking a child who climbed up on the counter

Negative Punishment (Omission Training)

When something pleasant is removed in order to decrease a behavior.

• Ex: losing computer privileges because of coming home late and after curfew

Corporal Punishment (Physical Punishment)

Intended to cause physical pain to the child.

• Teaches children that aggression can solve problems

• Can increase aggressive behavior in those children that grow up in this environment

• Can learn fear in those situations where physical punishment is used

Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcers - increase a behavior

Punishments - decrease a behavior

Ratio Schedules

Reinforce after a certain number of responses

• Ex: every sixth time the reinforcer is given

Fixed Ratio - reinforce after a set number of responses

• Ex: a carpenter is paid after every table he builds

Variable Ratio - reinforce after a random number of responses

• Ex: slot machines

Interval Schedules

Reinforce after a certain period of time.

• Ex: paycheck is every 2 weeks

Fixed Interval - Reinforce after a set period of time

• Ex: the paychecks are distributed every Friday to the employees

Variable interval - Reinforce after a random period of time

• Ex: police officer in a speed trap

Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

When people are pushed to engage in a behavior for the love of the activity.

• Ex: joining choir due to a love of singing

Extrinsic Motivation

When people are pushed to engage in behaviors for external rewards.

• Ex: trying to score goals because you would get paid

• Similar to a positive reinforcement

Overjustification Effect

When a person starts out intrinsically motivated to engage in a behavior but starts to become extrinsically motivated when they are given external rewards

Observational Learning (Social Learning)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experiences that fuel the learning.

Latent Learning

Edward Tolman

• People could learn things in life they make not need to use right now

  • Later on, that hidden learning can be demonstrated, even if it was not immediately reinforced

  • This was called latent learning (learning that remains hidden until it is necessary)

• He built a rat maze that had no food nor exists, so the rats who spent time in this maze would just wander around

  • They were put into it repeatedly

  • One day, he put food at the end, and the rats found it almost immediately

• Even without reinforcement, the rats had learned enough about their surroundings to demonstrate it once reinforcement was offered later

• Cognitive maps - mental representations of areas they had traveled

• Reinforcer needs to be presented

• Operant Conditioning

• What we gather from the world

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura

• Biggest component of social learning, watching others provides important cues for how one should behave

Bobo Doll Study

• Bobo doll is an inflatable doll filled with sand at the bottom so that it returns to an upright position after being pushed or kicked

• Had children watch a video with an aggressive male model hitting the hobo doll, and the other half not watch the video

• Then, the kids were put into a room with the toys

• The control subjects (did not see the video) played with the other various toys

• The experimental subjects (did see the video) were aggressive towards the Bobo doll

Pro-Social vs Anti-Social

• Children might imitate what is demonstrated by available role models.

• Observation is important, but its not the only thing that influences behavior

• Learning-based professionals emphasize observation of others

• Pioneered by Albert Bandura

Anti-Social Effect

• If a child is surrounded by negative role models (abusive, talk down to child, do not engage child), the child will imitate that behavior

Pro-Social Effect

• If a child is surrounded by positive role models (supportive, speak with respect, and can be trusted by child), the child will imitate that behavior