CHAPTER_5 Psy of women all in one
Overview of Gender Comparisons in Cognitive Abilities
Positive Attitudes Toward Mathematics- Boys typically exhibit more positive attitudes towards mathematics than girls do (Cunningham et al., 2015; Evans et al., 2002). This can lead to greater engagement and persistence in math-related activities.
Perceptions of Gender Roles in STEM Fields- Around age 10, many students associate math, computers, and science with males (Cooper & Weaver, 2003; Räty et al., 2004; Smith et al., 2005). These perceptions can influence career aspirations and academic choices, leading to self-selection out of these fields.
Girls may shy away from mathematics if it appears “too masculine” (Makarova et al., 2019), internalizing stereotypes that suggest these subjects are not for them, potentially affecting their performance and interest.
Stereotype Threat in Academic Performance
Definition of Stereotype Threat- Stereotype threat refers to the risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group, which can significantly hinder performance on tasks relevant to that stereotype (Chipman, 2004; Davies & Spencer, 2004; Gibson et al., 2014; Steele et al., 2002). This anxiety can divert cognitive resources away from the task itself.
Influence on Mathematics and Spatial Tests- For instance, if a young woman thinks, "This is a test where women just can’t do well," she'll likely experience more negative thoughts and anxiety than a young man with similar abilities (Cadinu et al., 2005). This cognitive load can impair concentration and problem-solving abilities.
Research Findings- Numerous studies indicate that women achieve lower scores under stereotype threat conditions compared to situations where it is absent (e.g., Good et al., 2003; Gresky et al., 2005; Smith, 2004; Smith et al., 2005). This suggests the power of social context in influencing individual performance. A notable finding by Thoman et al. (2008) showed that when college women were informed about men scoring higher due to perceived effort rather than innate ability, their performance improved. This suggests that reframing the reasons for performance differences can mitigate stereotype threat.
Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
General Intelligence and Cognitive Tasks- No consistent gender differences are found in general intelligence, general knowledge, concept formation, problem solving, or creativity. This indicates overall cognitive parity between genders in these broad areas.
Memory Tasks- Women outperform men in recalling life events (episodic memory), recognizing faces, and remembering previously exposed objects. Conversely, both genders show equal skill in recalling abstract shapes, indicating domain-specific memory strengths.
Verbal Skills- Currently, gender differences in verbal skills are minimal, though boys are slightly more likely than girls to have reading disabilities (Section Summary). This slight disparity does not translate to a general female superiority in verbal abilities across the board.
Attitudes About Achievement
Learning Objectives- The objectives are to summarize gender similarities and differences in achievement motivation, describe factors influencing self-confidence on challenging tasks, analyze gender reactions to evaluations from others, and identify factors affecting attributions made for success.
Achievement Motivation
Definition- Achievement motivation is the desire to accomplish something independently and effectively (Hyde & Kling, 2001). It drives individuals to strive for mastery and competence.
Discussions on Gender Motivation- Researchers note a tendency to attribute fewer women in prestigious professions to personal deficiencies, which is contested by extensive evidence showing women typically hold positive school attitudes, study more, earn higher grades, and have lower dropout rates (Ellis et al., 2008; Halpern, 2006a; Van de Gaer et al., 2007). This suggests that systemic or social factors, rather than a lack of motivation, may contribute to disparities in certain professional fields.
Gender Differences in Mathematics and Spatial Abilities
Mathematics Abilities- Gender differences are minimal on most mathematics tests, with girls generally receiving higher grades in math courses throughout school. However, men typically achieve higher scores on standardized tests like the SAT, which has been shown to underpredict women's college math achievements, suggesting a potential test bias or different testing strategies.
Spatial Abilities- Differences in spatial visualization (e.g., imagining how objects look when rotated) are limited. Moderate differences exist in spatial perception (e.g., locating the horizontal or vertical in a tilted frame), and substantial differences are identified in mental rotation tasks (e.g., mentally rotating a 3D object), where men generally perform better, although most genders receive similar scores on general spatial tests.
Role of Gender and Environment- Gender differences in spatial and mathematical tasks may diminish when tasks are described as feminine or if specific training in spatial skills is applied. This highlights the malleability of these abilities through training and the influence of framing on performance.
Biological and Social Influences- Biological factors considered include genetics, hormones (e.g., testosterone), and brain organization (e.g., lateralization), though these have received limited support as primary explanations for gender differences in cognitive abilities. Social influences, on the other hand, focus more on experiences in extracurricular activities, gender-related reactions from peers and adults, and the pervasive impact of stereotype threat.
Self-Confidence and Gender
Self-Confidence in Achievement- It's noted that men often report higher self-confidence related to their abilities compared to women, particularly influenced by external evaluations on specific tasks. This self-assessment can impact willingness to take on challenges.
Effects of Feedback- Research by Roberts and Nolen-Hoeksema (1989) demonstrated that women's self-confidence is more significantly swayed by positive or negative comments (e.g., “You are doing very well” vs. “You are not doing very well”). This indicates a greater sensitivity to external feedback regarding performance among women.
Personal Definitions of Success
Study Findings- A study by Dyke & Murphy (2006) showed divergent definitions of success between genders:
Men's definitions often leaned towards professional recognition, status, and material success. These aspects define success primarily through external achievements and public acknowledgment.
Women described success with a balance between professional attainment and personal well-being, including family, relationships, and internal satisfaction.
Attributions of Success
Factors Influencing Attributions- People attribute success to varying factors including ability, effort, task difficulty, or luck. Men are generally more likely to credit their success to stable internal factors like ability, while gender differences in attributions are minimal overall when considering all factors.
Contextual Influence- Men are more likely to attribute success to ability in public settings compared to women, who may shift their narrative and attribute success more to effort or external factors in private. Additionally, older adults (above 25) show different attributional patterns compared to younger individuals, often placing more emphasis on effort and experience.
Summary of Key Gender Comparisons
Gender similarities are commonplace across various cognitive tasks, emphasizing that general intelligence and many specific abilities do not show significant gender gaps.
Instances of gender differences should typically be interpreted within social and contextual frames, as the discrepancies are not large enough to substantiate claims of significant deficiencies in either gender. These differences are often influenced by environmental factors and stereotype threat.
Further exploration of women’s professional experiences in later chapters will uncover external contributions to gender-related occupational imbalances, such as discrimination, work-life balance issues, and societal expectations.
Conclusion
Gender similarities manifest across cognitive abilities, with nuanced differences particularly evident in self-confidence and motivation, often shaped by social contexts. Future discussions will explore gender in social contexts, focusing more deeply on interpersonal behaviors and occupational realities to understand achievement disparities comprehensively.
Key Terms
Cognitive Ability: "The capacity to process, understand, reason with, and remember information" as defined by Dilchert (2008).
Stereotype Threat: A phenomenon that affects performance due to the fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group.
Achievement Motivation: The intrinsic desire to perform well on tasks autonomously, reflecting one’s capability and effort.
Review Questions
Discuss the implications of a newspaper article asserting that men are more creative based on minimal score differences.
Reflect on cognitive abilities without gender discrepancies based on personal familiarity.
Describe the complexity of gender comparisons related to memory.
Respond to a claim regarding reading abilities in a third-grade classroom using chapter insights.
Recommended Readings for Further Study
Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (Eds.). (2007). Why aren’t more women in science?
Gallagher, A. M., & Kaufman, J. C. (Eds.). (2004). Gender differences in mathematics: An integrative psychological approach.
Halpern, D. F., Aronson, J., et al. (2007). Encouraging girls in math and science.
Wigfield, A., et al. (2015). Development of achievement motivation and engagement.