Chapter 13 Notes: Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Major concepts: corruption in the Catholic Church and rising monarchical power help drive the Protestant Reformation; reforms reshape beliefs, institutions, and culture; Christian humanists (Erasmus) and dissenters (Luther, Calvin, Anabaptists) critique church doctrine and abuses; reforms in England strengthen the English monarchy; Catholic rulers like Philip II expand power through Catholicism; dynastic, commercial, and religious factors fuel Wars of Religion across Europe; Protestant nobles challenge traditional rulers and Catholic authority; Edict of Nantes brief religious toleration in France; interactions among states, churches, and reform movements shift political alignments (Key Concept 1.3).
The Prelude to Reformation: Christian humanism focuses on sources of early Christianity, the Bible, and church Fathers; education as a reform instrument; Erasmus promotes the philosophy of Christ, inner piety, and Bible accessibility; Erasmus edits the Greek New Testament (1516) and a Latin translation; Erasmus writes Annotations and The Praise of Folly; his motto is education and a critique of clerical abuses; Erasmus influences Luther but later opposes divorce of unity within the church.
Thomas More and Erasmus: More translates Greek authors, writes Utopia (1516) on communal ownership and rational social organization; More serves as lord chancellor and advocates tolerance for unity of church; his persecution of heresy underscores conflicts between reform and traditional authority.
The Eve of Reformation: Catholic Church is seen as corrupt due to clerical pluralism and absenteeism; relics, indulgences, and a focus on wealth erode spiritual authority; calls for reform come from Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and the Oratory of Divine Love; Cardinal Ximenes and the Spanish humanist circle promote reform; the Modern Devotion (Thomas a Kempis) emphasizes inner piety over dogma.
Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany: Luther, born 1483, seeks assurance of salvation; he argues salvation by faith alone (justification by faith) and Scripture alone as authoritative; he critiques indulgences (157), leading to the Ninety‑five Theses (1517) and a broader reform movement; Tetzel markets indulgences; Luther invites debate on Scripture and reason, challenging papal authority; Leipzig Debate (1519) forces Luther to confront papal and canonical authority and link his ideas to Hus.
Luther’s key reforms: two sacraments retained (baptism and the Lord’s Supper); rejection of transubstantiation but belief in real presence; priesthood of all believers; vernacular worship; state churches organized under secular authorities; Luther marries Katharine von Bora (1525) as a model of clerical marriage; translation of the New Testament into German within 12 years after 1522; hymn writing and sermons drive spread; opposition from Lutheran reformers and Christian humanists like Erasmus emerges; urban spread of Lutheranism through cities and pamphlets with woodcuts.
Political and religious conflict in Germany: the Edict of Worms (1521) outlaws Luther; Charles V struggles with Francis I, the Turks, and internal German conflict; Schmalkaldic League forms (1531) to defend Lutheranism; Diet of Augsburg (1530) fails to settle differences; Schmalkaldic Wars (1546–1547) yield early Lutheran victory at Mühlberg; later, renewed pressure leads to the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, recognizing Lutheran rights and allowing princes to determine religion in their territories (cuius regio, eius religio) ext{cuius regio, eius religio}; division persists.
The Spread of Lutheranism: Luther’s ideas reach Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) where monarchs establish state churches; Lutheranism spreads in Strasbourg and Basel through reformers like Martin Bucer; Melanchthon assists education and Greek/Hebrew teaching; Philipp Melanchthon promotes the reform agenda and the gymnasium system across German-speaking lands.
Zwinglian Reform in Switzerland: Ulrich Zwingli begins reform in Zürich (1518–1529); the cantonal system enables city councils to reform worship (no relics, no images, plain churches); the Mass is replaced by Scripture reading and preaching; monasticism, pilgrimages, veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and papal authority are rejected; cantons in Basel, Bern, and Zürich adopt reforms; Zürich loses in the cantonal wars, dies in 1531, and his successor continues the movement.
Marburg Colloquy (1529) and the Lord’s Supper: Luther and Zwingli disagree on the meaning of the Lord’s Supper; Luther argues for the real presence in the elements; Zwingli argues symbolically; no unified evangelical alliance results; disagreement foreshadows later Protestant fragmentation.
The Anabaptists and the Radical Reformation: Anabaptists advocate adult baptism, voluntary church membership, and a separation of church and state; early Swiss Brethren are expelled from Zürich; Münster (1534–1535) becomes a New Jerusalem under radical leadership and is later crushed; Mennonites and Amish emerge from the Dutch Anabaptist tradition; pacifism and separation from worldly power are emphasized by Menno Simons.
The Reformation in England: Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon leads to England breaking with Rome (Act of Supremacy, 1534) and establishment of the Church of England with the king as head; dissolution of monasteries (1536) funds crown; Anne Boleyn’s marriage to Henry yields Elizabeth; Edward VI introduces more Protestant doctrine (Book of Common Prayer); Mary I restores Catholicism (Catholic monarchy) and persecutes Protestants; Elizabeth I (1558–1603) settles with a moderate Protestant settlement (Act of Supremacy 1558, Act of Uniformity, Thirty-Nine Articles) and avoids extreme reform; Puritans challenge later.
Calvin and Calvinism: John Calvin, after conversion, writes Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536); Calvin emphasizes justification by faith, the sovereignty of God, predestination; Geneva becomes a center of reform under Calvin, with Ecclesiastical Ordinances (1541) establishing the Consistory for discipline; the Consistory exercises moral oversight; Calvinism spreads to France, the Netherlands, Scotland (John Knox), and continental Europe; Calvinism becomes a major form of Protestantism by mid‑century.
The Social Impact of the Reformation: The family sees increased emphasis on mutual love in marriage; Protestant reformers condemn clerical celibacy and promote family life; education expands beyond the elite to broader populations; schools and gymnasia spread; women’s roles are debated; some women (Katherine Zell) participate in reform, but overall women’s roles remain constrained.
The Catholic Reformation: The Catholic Reformation or Counter‑Reformation; revival of mysticism (Teresa of Avila); renewal of orders (Capuchins, Theatines, Ursulines) and creation of new orders; the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556); Jesuits emphasize education, missionary work, and loyalty to the papacy; Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises shape spiritual discipline; Jesuits restore Catholicism in parts of Germany and Eastern Europe; Jesuits also reach Asia (Francis Xavier) and China via Matteo Ricci; The papacy’s reform under Paul III (1534–1549) includes the Council of Trent (1545–63) and the Inquisition; Trent reaffirms Catholic doctrine, Scripture and Tradition, seven sacraments, transubstantiation, purgatory, and clerical discipline; seminary training is mandated in every diocese.
The Council of Trent and doctrines: Scripture and Tradition are equal authorities; only the Church interprets Scripture; seven sacraments; reaffirmation of transubstantiation and purgatory; indulgences are reaffirmed but not hawked; seminaries established; justification by faith and good works reaffirmed; discipline of clergy tightened; final decrees unify Catholic doctrine for centuries; papal authority is strengthened.
Politics and the Wars of Religion: Religion and political power entangle across Europe; France experiences the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598); Calvinists (Huguenots) range from artisans to nobility; Catherine de’ Medici governs as regent; the Guise faction leads ultra‑Catholics; politique stakeholders seek political settlement over religious purity; Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572) marks a turning point; War of the Three Henrys (1587–1589) ends in Henry IV’s rise; Henry IV converts to Catholicism (1594) and issues the Edict of Nantes (1598) granting limited toleration to Huguenots.
Philip II and militant Catholicism: The Most Catholic King (Philip II) governs Spain, the Netherlands, and possessions in Italy; aggressive enforcement of Catholicism via the Inquisition; attempts to crush Protestantism in the Netherlands lead to rebellion and a long Dutch War; Lepanto (1571) halts Ottoman advances; the Armada (1588) fails to invade England; financial strain and debt mark Philip’s reign; the Netherlands’ revolt divides into the United Provinces (north) and the Spanish Netherlands (south); the Union of Utrecht (1579) and the Union of Arras (1579) reflect religious and political splits; economic burden and centralized governance under the monarchy contribute to Spain’s decline.
The England of Elizabeth: Elizabeth I (1558–1603) pursues a moderate policy to avoid religious war; Act of Supremacy names Elizabeth as supreme governor of Church and Realm; Book of Common Prayer and Thirty‑Nine Articles define a middle way; Mary, Queen of Scots, poses a Catholic threat; Elizabeth’s ministers like Cecil and Walsingham ensure secure rule and foreign policy; Elizabeth’s government assists Protestant forces abroad (Dutch affairs) while avoiding direct confrontation with Spain; Tilbury speech demonstrates resolve and effective leadership in the face of invasion threats.
Chapter chronology and synthesis: key dates include the Ninety‑Five Theses (1517), Leipzig Debate (1519), Diet of Worms (1521), Peace of Augsburg (1555), Act of Supremacy (1534 in England), St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572), Edict of Nantes (1598), Spanish Armada (1588).
Key terms to know: Christian (northern) Renaissance humanism; pluralism; indulgences; transubstantiation; justification by faith; predestination; Catholic Reformation; Huguenots; politiques; Puritans.
Connections and implications: The Reformation intersects with Renaissance humanism, political centralization, and emerging nation‑states; religious reform becomes a tool for political authority; education and print culture accelerate reform movements; religious conflicts reshape Europe’s political map and pave the way for early modern state systems.
Ethical and practical implications: reform movements prompt debates over church authority, church‑state relations, and religious toleration; the treatment of dissenters (Anabaptists, Puritans) reveals limits of religious liberty; the Catholic Reformation seeks doctrinal clarity and moral renewal while managing political dissent; the era raises questions about violence, reform, and the role of religion in governance.
Equations and formulas (LaTeX):
Peace of Augsburg principle: \text{cuius regio, eius religio}
Luther’s two sacraments retained: \text{Baptism}, \text{Lord's Supper}
Key doctrinal contrast: \text{Justification by faith alone} \neq \text{Justification by faith and works}
Major reform movements named: \text{Lutheranism}, \text{Zwinglianism}, \text{Anabaptism}, \text{Calvinism}
Focus questions (for review): how did Renaissance ideals influence the Catholic Church; what aspects of Catholicism did reformers challenge; how did church responses to critiques shape reforms; to what extent did Reformation alter state and ecclesiastical authority; how did women’s roles evolve; what were the causes and effects of religious wars; how did different Protestant sects appeal to various social classes; what were the ethical implications of religious wars and social upheaval; how did Protestant sects differ in doctrine and practice; how did the Catholic Reformation redefine Catholic doctrine and practice; what political strategies in late 16th century helped or hindered religious reform?
Here are some focus questions for your review:
How did Renaissance ideals influence the Catholic Church?
What aspects of Catholicism did reformers challenge?
How did church responses to critiques shape reforms?
To what extent did Reformation alter state and ecclesiastical authority?
How did women
-s roles evolve?What were the causes and effects of religious wars?
How did different Protestant sects appeal to various social classes?
What were the ethical implications of religious wars and social upheaval?
How did Protestant sects differ in doctrine and practice?
How did the Catholic Reformation redefine Catholic doctrine and practice?
What political strategies in late 16th century helped or hindered religious reform?