CH. 7 CP

Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation

Encoding: Getting Information into Long-Term Memory

• Encoding: The process of acquiring information and transferring it into long-term memory (LTM).

• Retrieval: The process of transferring information from LTM back to working memory.

Levels of Processing Theory

• Proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972).

• Memory depends on the depth of processing:

  • Shallow processing: Little attention to meaning (e.g. focusing on physical features of words).

  • Deep processing: Focuses on meaning and relationships to other concepts (e.g. relating words to personal experiences).

• Research indicates that deeper processing results in better memory retention.

Techniques to Enhance Encoding

1. Forming Visual Images: Using mental images to represent words improves memory.

   • Example: Bower & Winzenz (1970) found that forming images for paired words significantly increases recall.

2. Linking Words to Yourself: Relating material to personal experiences enhances memory (self-reference effect).

   • Example: Leshikar et al. (2015) showed that memory improved for adjectives that participants related to themselves.

3. Generating Information: Creating material yourself leads to better retention (generation effect).

   • Example: Slameka & Graf (1978) found that participants who generated answers performed better than those who merely read them.

4. Organizing Information: Structuring material into categories aids retrieval (e.g. using outlines or trees).

   • Example: Bower et al. (1969) showed that participants recalled more items when presented with an organized structure compared to a random list.

5. Relating Words to Survival Value: Meaningful context enhances recall; Nairne et al. (2010) found survival-based relevance improved memory recall.

6. Retrieval Practice: Testing oneself enhances memory (testing effect).

   • Example: Karpicke & Roediger (2008) showed that practice tests improved retention over mere restudy.

Effective Studying Techniques

• Elaborate: Think deeply about the material; connect it to existing knowledge.

• Generate and Test: Create questions about the material; practical testing helps retention.

• Organize: Create framework maps or outlines to relate information.

• Take Breaks: Spaced study sessions are more effective than cramming; supports the spacing effect.

• Avoid Illusions of Learning: Techniques like highlighting don't guarantee comprehension or retention.

• Active Note-Taking: Handwriting notes encourages deeper processing than typing.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory

• Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that aid recall; effective when contextual conditions match encoding conditions.

• Cued Recall Method: Use hints to trigger memory recall (e.g. category names).

• Free Recall vs Cued Recall: Free recall is spontaneous, while cued recall involves explicit prompts, improving retrieval significantly.

Matching Conditions for Better Recall

1. Encoding Specificity: Contextual memories are easier to retrieve when the environment and conditions match.

   • Example: Godden & Baddeley's diving experiment showed that recall is better when tested in the same environment as learning.

2. State-Dependent Learning: Memory retention is enhanced when the individual's internal state at retrieval matches that of encoding.

   • Example: Eich & Metcalf (1989) found that participants recalled more words when their mood matched the mood during encoding.

3. Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Retrieval succeeds better when the cognitive processes match those used during encoding.

   • Example: Morris et al. (1977) showed that participants performed better when retrieval conditions matched encoding conditions.

Consolidation: Strengthening Memories

• Consolidation: The process that stabilizes memories after initial acquisition.

• Types of Consolidation:

  • Synaptic Consolidation: Quick changes at synapses; occurs in minutes to hours.

  • Systems Consolidation: Gradual reorganization of neural connections; may take months to years.

Experiments on Consolidation

• Müller & Pilzecker (1900): Showed that immediate learning of new material disrupts memory consolidation.

• Effects of Sleep: Sleep is critical for memory consolidation; studies by Gais et al. (2006) indicated that sleep improves retention.

• Reconsolidation: Reactivating a memory makes it temporarily malleable, allowing for updates or changes.

  • Example: Nader et al. (2000) demonstrated that rats' memories could be altered upon reactivation, analogous to human memory modifications during retrieval.

Practical Applications of Reconsolidation Research

• Treating PTSD: Strategies aiming at memory reactivation combined with medications can reduce traumatic memory impacts.

  • Brunet et al. (2008) showcased that memory reactivation after trauma followed by propranolol administration decreased emotional responses.

Summary of Key Concepts

• Both encoding and retrieval processes are essential for effective long-term memory retention.

• Techniques that enhance deep processing, organization, and active engagement are more effective for studying.

• Memory is dynamic; it can be consolidated, reconsolidated, and even updated, impacting how we remember and apply knowledge.