The Middle Ages (circa 500-1500 AD)

Early Middle Ages (500-1000 AD)

1. Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD):

• Key Events: Deposition of the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer.

• Outcomes: The fragmentation of the Western Roman Empire into various barbarian kingdoms and the transition to the medieval period.

2. Byzantine Empire:

• Key Figures: Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527-565), known for the Justinian Code and the construction of Hagia Sophia.

• Major Events: The Nika Riots (532), expansion and consolidation of Byzantine territories, and the Justinian Plague (541-542).

3. Rise of Islam:

• Key Figures: Prophet Muhammad (c. 570-632), the founder of Islam.

• Major Events: The Hijra (migration to Medina, 622), the spread of Islam across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe.

• Outcomes: The establishment of the Caliphates (Umayyad, Abbasid) and significant cultural and scientific advancements.

4. Feudalism:

• Key Concepts: A social and economic system in medieval Europe where land was granted in exchange for service and labor.

• Key Figures: Charlemagne (reigned 768-814), who was crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800, marking the revival of the Western Roman Empire under the Carolingian dynasty.

High Middle Ages (1000-1300 AD)

1. Crusades:

• Key Events: First Crusade (1096-1099), capture of Jerusalem; Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), which resulted in the sack of Constantinople.

• Outcomes: The establishment of Crusader states in the Holy Land and increased contact between Europe and the Middle East.

2. Medieval Universities:

• Key Institutions: University of Bologna (1088), University of Paris (c. 1150), and University of Oxford (1096).

• Impact: These institutions were centers of learning and scholarship, leading to the development of medieval scholasticism.

3. Gothic Architecture:

• Key Examples: Notre-Dame de Paris, Chartres Cathedral.

• Characteristics: Features include pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses.

4. Black Death:

• Key Events: The pandemic of bubonic plague that swept through Europe (1347-1351).

• Impact: Significant population decline, social and economic upheaval, and changes in labor dynamics.

Late Middle Ages (1300-1500 AD)

1. Hundred Years' War (1337-1453):

• Key Figures: Joan of Arc, King Edward III of England, King Charles VII of France.

• Major Events: Key battles include Agincourt (1415) and the siege of Orléans (1428-1429).

• Outcomes: Strengthening of national identities in France and England, and significant changes in military tactics.

2. Renaissance:

• Key Figures: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael.

• Key Developments: Revival of classical learning and wisdom, advances in art, science, and literature.

• Major Works: "The Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci, "David" by Michelangelo, "The School of Athens" by Raphael.

3. Rise of Nation-States:

• Key Figures: Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, who completed the Reconquista and sponsored Christopher Columbus.

• Major Events: The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal.

2. The Early Modern Period (1500-1800 AD)

Renaissance and Reformation

1. Reformation:

• Key Figures: Martin Luther (95 Theses, 1517), John Calvin (Institutes of the Christian Religion).

• Major Events: The Diet of Worms (1521) where Luther defended his ideas; the formation of Protestant denominations.

• Outcomes: Significant religious, social, and political changes in Europe.

2. Scientific Revolution:

• Key Figures: Nicolaus Copernicus (heliocentric theory), Galileo Galilei (telescope observations), Isaac Newton (laws of motion and gravitation).

• Key Developments: Advances in astronomy, physics, and scientific methods.

3. Age of Exploration:

• Key Figures: Christopher Columbus (discovered the New World in 1492), Vasco da Gama (sailed to India), Ferdinand Magellan (circumnavigated the globe).

• Key Events: Establishment of European colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

• Outcomes: Expansion of European empires, significant cultural exchanges, and the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade.

Early Modern Political Developments

1. Absolute Monarchy:

• Key Figures: Louis XIV of France (Sun King), Peter the Great of Russia.

• Key Concepts: Centralization of power, divine right of kings, and the construction of grand palaces like Versailles.

2. Enlightenment:

• Key Figures: Voltaire (critique of organized religion), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (social contract theory), John Locke (theory of government and natural rights).

• Key Developments: Promotion of reason, individual rights, and secular governance.

3. English Civil War (1642-1651):

• Key Figures: King Charles I, Oliver Cromwell.

• Major Events: Execution of Charles I, establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell.

• Outcomes: Development of constitutional monarchy and the eventual restoration of the monarchy under Charles II.

4. The Glorious Revolution (1688):

• Key Figures: William of Orange, King James II.

• Major Events: Overthrow of James II and the installation of William and Mary as co-monarchs.

• Outcomes: Establishment of constitutional monarchy and the Bill of Rights (1689).

Economic and Social Changes

1. Commercial Revolution:

• Key Developments: Expansion of trade networks, rise of capitalism, and establishment of joint-stock companies.

• Impact: Growth of global trade and the accumulation of wealth by European nations.

2. Agricultural Revolution:

• Key Developments: Introduction of new farming techniques and crop rotations.

• Impact: Increased agricultural productivity and population growth.

3. Industrial Revolution:

• Key Figures: James Watt (improved steam engine), Richard Arkwright (spinning frame), and Eli Whitney (cotton gin).

• Key Innovations: Mechanized textile production, development of railways, and advancements in manufacturing processes.

• Impact: Transition from agrarian economies to industrialized economies, urbanization, and significant social changes.