State, Society and Public Policy — Key Power Concepts (Dahl and Alternatives)

Dahl’s Definition of Power

Definition (Dahl): A ext{ has power over } B ext{ to the extent that } A ext{ can get } B ext{ to do something that } B ext{ would not otherwise do.}
Key features:
- Power is relational — it exists only in interactions between agents.
- Power involves influence, not just coercion or force.
- Power can be observed through behavioral outcomes (what people actually do under influence).

Core question: How can power be studied systematically?
Dahl’s approach:
- Focus on observable behavior.
- Identify who prevails in decision-making situations.
- Assess changes in actions based on different influences.
Example: In a city council, which members’ proposals are accepted most often?

Central claim: Power is exercised through decisions.
Key idea: Those who frequently succeed in decision-making processes are more powerful.
Example: If a CEO consistently gets the board to approve their policies, they hold power.

Power is not only coercion; it includes influence.
Methods of exercising power:
- Persuasion: Convincing others to agree.
- Incentives: Offering rewards for compliance.
- Sanctions: Applying penalties for non-compliance.
Example: A teacher motivates students with grades rather than punishments.

Too Narrow: Focuses only on observable conflicts.
Ignores Agenda-Setting: What about power that prevents issues from even being discussed?
Ignores Structural Power: Systems that create inherent advantages (e.g., economic inequality).
Example: A media company controlling what news topics are covered.

Bachrach & Baratz (Two Faces of Power): Power includes agenda-setting and non-decision-making.
Lukes (Three-Dimensional Power): Power can shape preferences and social norms.
Example: Political elites framing debates to exclude certain policies.

Where it works well:
- Studying political decision-making in democratic institutions.
- Analyzing voting behavior in legislative bodies.
Where it falls short:
- Explaining hidden power dynamics.
- Understanding long-term systemic inequalities.
Example: Voting records in Congress vs. lobbying influence behind the scenes.

Main argument: One-dimensional view assumes power is only exercised in visible, overt decision-making conflicts.
Limitation: Ignores how power is used to prevent conflicts from emerging in the first place.
Example: Civil Rights Movement (Pre-1950s): Before momentum, many issues regarding racial discrimination were suppressed from public debate through legal barriers (e.g., voter suppression laws) and social norms that discouraged discussion.

Definition: Power is not only exercised through decision-making but also through the ability to prevent decisions from ever being considered.
Key components:
- Decision-Making Power (the traditional view): Who wins in overt conflicts?
- Agenda-Setting (Non-Decision-Making Power): Who decides what is even considered for debate?
Example: Corporate lobbying in environmental policy — large corporations prevent certain environmental regulations from reaching legislative debates through lobbying and campaign contributions, effectively exercising power without visible conflict.

Suppressing Potential Issues: Ensuring grievances are not formally recognized as political problems.
Controlling Public Debate: Influencing media, discourse, and institutional norms to prevent discussions.
Mechanisms Used:
- Bureaucratic hurdles (e.g., restrictive voting laws).
- Social norms and stigmatization (e.g., LGBTQ+ rights debates in the early 20th century).
- Economic pressure (e.g., advertisers withdrawing support from media covering controversial topics).
Example: Women’s Suffrage Movement (19th Century): Women’s right to vote was often dismissed as not a political issue by those in power, delaying its inclusion in legislative agendas.

Expanding political research:
- Scholars must look beyond visible conflicts to understand hidden mechanisms of power.
Studying latent conflicts:
- Investigating why certain issues never gain political traction.
Challenges in measuring hidden power:
- How can we detect power if it works by making conflicts invisible?
- What methods can researchers use to uncover suppressed political issues?
Example: Workers' Rights in the Gig Economy: Many gig economy workers lack traditional labor protections because these concerns are systematically excluded from major policy discussions through corporate influence.

Challenges to the Two-Dimensional View:
- How can we empirically prove that an issue was intentionally suppressed?
- Can all omissions from the political agenda be attributed to power, or are some due to lack of interest?
Further Research Questions:
- How does media ownership influence which political topics are discussed?
- How do dominant ideologies shape perceptions of what is worth debating?
Example: Healthcare Reform in the U.S.: Some models (e.g., universal healthcare) are rarely discussed as viable options despite public support, partly due to healthcare industry lobbying.