04- OB- ch04

Chapter 4: Theories of Motivation

What is Motivation?

Motivation can be defined as the intensity, direction, and persistence of an individual's effort toward achieving a goal.

• Intensity refers to how hard a person tries.

• Direction involves the pathways in which that effort is channeled.

• Persistence indicates how long an individual is willing to maintain their effort.

Theoretical Perspectives on Motivation

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two contrasting theories regarding employee motivation in the workplace:

• Theory X assumes that employees inherently dislike work, require coercion to achieve goals, and are primarily driven by financial compensation. This management philosophy leads to an autocratic style dominating unskilled production sectors.

• Theory Y posits that employees view work as a natural part of life, seek responsibility, and can be self-motivated if they are aligned with the organization’s objectives. This leads to a more participatory management style commonly used with knowledge workers.

Needs Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's theory categorizes human needs into five levels:

1. Physiological Needs: Basic needs such as hunger and thirst.

2. Safety Needs: Security and protection from harm.

3. Social Needs: Belongingness, love, and acceptance within relationships.

4. Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, respect, and recognition.

5. Self-Actualization Needs: The desire to realize one's potential and pursue personal growth.

• Lower-order needs are externally satisfied (physiological and safety), while higher-order needs are internally satisfied (social, esteem, and self-actualization).

Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, also known as the motivation-hygiene theory, distinguishes between motivating factors and hygiene factors:

• Motivators (intrinsic factors): Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement, which contribute to job satisfaction.

• Hygiene Factors (extrinsic factors): Salary, company policies, working conditions, and relationships, which can lead to dissatisfaction if inadequate but do not enhance satisfaction if adequate.

McClelland's Theory of Needs

David McClelland identified three critical needs affecting motivation:

1. Need for Achievement: The drive to excel, achieve standards, and succeed.

2. Need for Power: The desire to control others and influence their behavior.

3. Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly, supportive relationships.

Process Theories of Motivation

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory suggests motivation is based on three evaluations:

• Expectancy: Belief that effort will lead to performance.

• Instrumentality: Belief that performance will lead to rewards.

• Valence: The importance placed on the potential rewards.

Goal-Setting Theory

The Goal-Setting Theory emphasizes that specific and challenging goals lead to higher performance, especially when feedback is provided. This theory posits that goals serve as a guide, directing effort and persistence.

Self-Efficacy Theory

This theory asserts that an individual’s belief in their capability to perform a task influences their behavior and motivation levels. Self-efficacy can be enhanced through experiences, modeling, persuasion, and an energized state.

Responses to Reward System

Equity Theory

Equity Theory posits that employees assess their job inputs and outcomes against others and adjust their effort accordingly to maintain equity, concerned with both absolute rewards and relative comparisons.

Fair Process and Treatment

Organizational justice refers to overall fairness in the workplace, comprising distributive justice, procedural justice, informational justice, and interpersonal justice.

Self-Determination Theory

This theory emphasizes the importance of intrinsic motivation over extrinsic rewards, suggesting that fulfilling employees' needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can enhance engagement and satisfaction.

Job Engagement

Job engagement reflects the degree to which individuals invest their physical, cognitive, and emotional energy into their work. The alignment of personal and organizational values significantly influences engagement levels.

Global Implications of Motivation Theories

Motivation theories have different implications in varying cultural contexts. For instance, while needs theories resonate well in Canadian and U.S. cultures, specific applications may vary in different cultural environments. The concepts of equity and justice in motivation also have varied interpretations worldwide.

Summary

The chapter emphasizes that motivation is a complex interplay of individual needs, expectations, and environmental factors. Understanding different theories helps managers foster an engaging and productive workplace, aligning individual goals with organizational objectives while addressing needs fairly and effectively.