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Unit 3: Bioenergetics Flashcards
Unit 3: Bioenergetics Flashcards
Cell Division
Mitosis:
Division of body (somatic) cells.
Diploid (2N) to diploid (2N).
Asexual reproduction.
Identical offspring.
Meiosis:
Division of sex cells (gametes).
Diploid (2N) to haploid (1N).
Sexual reproduction.
Genetically different offspring.
Mitosis Stages
Prophase:
Chromosomes shorten and become visible.
Nuclear membrane disappears.
Spindle fibers form.
Metaphase:
Chromosomes line up in the middle.
Anaphase:
Spindle fibers attach to centromeres.
Sister chromatids move to opposite poles.
Telophase:
Nuclear membrane reappears.
Chromosomes begin to disappear.
Cleavage furrow/cell plate develops.
Cytokinesis:
Division of cytoplasm.
Two identical daughter cells form.
Meiosis Stages
Interphase:
G_1: Cell grows.
S: DNA duplicates/replicates.
G_2: Cell grows and gets ready for division.
G_0: No change/growth; chromosomes are invisible.
Prophase I:
Chromosomes form a tetrad (4 chromatids).
Synapsis occurs (crossing over). Chromosomes exchange genetic information, increasing genetic diversity.
Tetrads move to poles.
Metaphase I:
Chromosomes line up randomly along the equator (
Independent Assortment
), leading to more genetic diversity.
Anaphase I:
Homologous chromosomes (tetrads) move to opposite poles.
Telophase I:
Nuclear membrane develops; reverse of prophase.
Cytokinesis I:
Two genetically different haploid cells are formed.
Meiosis II:
No Interphase II.
Identical to Mitosis.
Four genetically different haploid cells.
DNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
Double-stranded (double helix).
Contains genetic information in the nucleus.
Made of nucleotide bases: A, T, G, C. A pairs with T, and G pairs with C.
DNA Replication: DNA Helicase unzips the DNA; DNA Polymerase adds new bases and proofreads; DNA ligase zips it back up; makes an identical copy!
Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein
RNA
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):
Single-stranded.
Bases: A, U, C, G. A pairs with U.
Types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.
Protein Synthesis
Transcription:
DNA → mRNA.
Occurs in the nucleus.
Creates mRNA ("recipe").
Translation:
mRNA → Protein.
mRNA-tRNA-ribosome.
Codon (three mRNA bases) specifies an amino acid.
Anticodon (tRNA).
START codon: AUG.
STOP codons: UGA, UAA, UAG.
Genetics
Genotype:
Genetic makeup (e.g., Hh).
Phenotype:
Physical characteristics (e.g., brown hair).
Alleles:
Dominant allele.
Recessive allele.
Homozygous (e.g., HH or hh).
Heterozygous (e.g., Hh).
Monohybrid/Dihybrid crosses:
Used to predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
Punnett Square:
Diagram used to predict genotypes and phenotypes of offspring.
Pedigrees
Mutations
Point Mutations:
Silent: No change in amino acid sequence.
Missense: Change in amino acid sequence.
Nonsense: Premature stop codon.
Frameshift Mutations:
Insertion: Addition of a nucleotide.
Deletion: Removal of a nucleotide.
Chromosomal Mutations:
Inversion: Section of chromosome is reversed.
Translocation: Section of chromosome moves to another chromosome.
Nondisjunction: Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.
Other Genetic Concepts
Incomplete Dominance:
Blending of traits (e.g., red + white = pink flowers).
Codominance:
Both traits are expressed (e.g., black + white = black and white speckled chickens).
Multiple Alleles:
More than two alleles for a trait (e.g., blood type).
Sex-Linked Traits:
Genes located on sex chromosomes (e.g., colorblindness, XX, XY).
Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis (males):
Creates four genetically different sperm cells.
Oogenesis (females):
Creates one egg and three polar bodies.
Blood Types
Blood Types: A, B, AB, O
AB: Codominant
O: Recessive
Universal Donor: O
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AP Gov 1: Ideals of Democracy
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