Classical Rome

The Origins of Rome

STORY 1:

• According to Roman legend, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by the demi-god twins, Romulus and Remus.

• Sons of the war god, Mars, and a Latin princess.

• They were supposedly raised by a she-wolf and established Rome on the banks of the Tiber River.

STORY 2:

• According to the Roman poet, Virgil, Trojan refugees, led by Aeneas, founded Rome after escaping the destruction of Troy at the hands of the Mycenaean Greeks (remember the Trojan War as told by Homer?), as told in The Aeneid.

Rome’s Geography

• The Latins established Rome around the seven hills on the banks of the Tiber River.

• Rome’s central location on the Italian peninsula near the western coast enabled it to become a thriving trade center, but it was also far enough inland to be protected from sea raiders.

• Rome’s central location in the Mediterranean Sea later enabled the Romans to dominate the entire region militarily.

• “All roads lead to Rome.”

How did it compare to the Greeks and Etruscans?

• Roman society took a heavy influence from both the Greeks and Etruscans.

• The Etruscans provided guidance on more physical matters, helping with engineering and metalworking.

  • Etruscan gladiator fighting

  • Etruscan architecture

  • Etruscan alphabet

• The Greeks provided philosophical and thinking matters.

  • Greek religion and philosophies

  • Greek language

  • Cultivate olives and grapes

  • Greek architecture

    How did early Roman religion compare to Greek?

• Early Roman religion based a significant amount of their early religious practices on Greek beliefs.

• Both used mythology and the gods as a way to explain life events and natural phenomena.

• Most of them were Greek gods given a new name (many of which were astronomical names as opposed to human traits), but shared the same attributes.

  • Find the Roman name for the top 6 we discussed for Greece and add to your notes:

• Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Athena, Aphrodite, Artemis

  The Six Main Ones

• Zeus is Jupiter

• Hera is Juno

• Apollo is Apollo

• Athena is Minerva

• Aphrodite is Venus

• Artemis is Diana

Why did the Roman Kingdom change?

• Roman aristocrats (Patricians) overthrew the last Etruscan king, Tarquin the Proud, in 509 BCE.

  • An election was held after to decide what should happen; the Roman Republic was born of this.

  • Romans banned monarchy and threatened to kill anyone who sought to become a king.

All males over the age of 15 who were descended from the original tribes of Rome were declared citizens.

How did the Republic differ from the Kingdom?

• The Kingdom of Rome was a monarchy. The Roman Republic was a Representative Democracy.

  • In the Republic, citizens could vote for representatives in various positions.

• Not all citizens voted to fill the same positions, some elections were based on social class.

  Important Terms

• Patricians

  • Aristocratic Landowners

  • Controlled the Senate

• Senate

  • 300 members, controlled by the Patricians

  • Determined foreign and financial policy 

  • Advised the consuls

• Consuls

  • Two

  • Served as chief executives and army commanders in place of a single king

• Plebeians

  • Commoners

  • Demanded a greater role in government and forced the creation of a law code and tribal assembly

• Twelve Tables

  • Rome code of law created at the demand of the Plebeians

  • 451 B.C.E. 

• Tribal Assembly 

• Creation was demanded by the Plebeians

• Elected Tribunes and eventually made laws

• Tribunes

  • Elected officials

  • Defended the interest of the Plebeians against unfair acts and were eventually able to gain wider powers

• Legions

  • Consisted of about 5000 soldiers each, group by centuries

• Centuriate Assembly

  • Consisted of citizen-soldiers and selected consuls 

  • Mostly patricians at first but later consisted of more plebeians 

Praetors

• Served as chief judges and presided over civil and criminal courts 

• Selected by the Centuriate Assembly

What were the social classes in the Republic?

• Roman society was split into a social hierarchy like every other civilization.

• At the top, they had the Patricians, who were the wealthy landowners.

• Plebeians were the majority of Rome’s citizens, comprised on poorer farmers and craftsmen.

  • Plebeians can be foreigners.

• Women and freedmen were not citizens within the Republic; men had all the power and rights.

The Republic did utilize enslaved people as well.

What was the status of the family in Rome?

• Roman society placed heavy emphasis on the family unit.

• Since Rome was a patriarchy, the senior (oldest) male was the head of the family, making him the paterfamilias.

  • The paterfamilias would make all decisions, enforce his rules,                        put family members on trial and even execute them.

• Wealthier families sent their children to receive an education, while the poorer families sent their children to work.

What was life like in the Roman military?

• Originally only people from wealthy families joined the military, joined a legion of 4,200 men, and fought during the battle season (March to October).

  • Consul Marius allowed anybody to join the military, with the government providing their equipment.

• Legionaries would be recruited from conquered lands.

• Soldiers formed strong bonds through their difficult training, hardships, and experiences on the battlefield.

Rome’s military would become unstoppable, with any defeats suffered dealt with by a significantly larger army. We will explore the downfall of the Roman military.

What was there to do?

• The Roman Forum was the political, religious, economic, and social center     of the Roman Republic.

• Beginning as a burial ground, it transitioned to an open-air market where Romans could purchase anything they wanted.

• Over time, buildings began to be constructed surrounding the Forum, making it an influential part of the city.

• During the Republic it became the center of Roman politics, with it being home to many government buildings, important speaking stages, and the Twelve Tables.

What were the Twelve Tables?

• The Twelve Tables were a set of laws inscribed on bronze tablets around 450 BCE.

• They were the beginning of a new way of lawmaking and governing, based off law codes of Draco and Solon.

Under the Twelve Tables, all citizens were treated the same, as these laws were passed to protect citizens’ rights and liberties.

Who was Cincinnatus?

• In the Roman Republic, most of the power lay in the hands of the Patrician class.

• Even as plebeians pushed for more power, Romans valued civic virtue in their leaders, allowing absolute authority to be given to some leaders when needed.

• Cincinnatus won fame as consul and was appointed dictator twice (458 BCE and 439 BCE) to help with foreign and domestic threats.

• After no longer being needed as a dictator, he returned to his farm, setting an example of civic duty and not trying retain power.

  How did Rome survive and develop early on?

• To survive, Rome had to stay organized in an almost constant state of warfare against others.

• Rome led the Latin League (a confederation of about 30 city-states around Rome) in a series of wars that led to Roman dominance in Italy by 264 BCE.

  • All Latins received Roman citizenship.

  • Conquered citizens were given citizenship but not the right to vote.

  • Allies contributed to the Roman military.

• Even though Rome earned a reputation for being militaristic, they practiced leniency with their defeated enemies and gained their trust and support.

First Punic War: 264-241 BCE

• The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome over control of Sicily and Corsica.

• Carthage’s presence in Sicily pressured Rome to attack, sending forces to Sicily, Corsica, and Northern Africa.

• Roman forces won control of the city of Messana in 264 and control over the island of Corsica in 260 BCE.

• Carthaginian forces controlled most of Sicily and defeated the Romans in Africa.

  Outcomes of the First Punic War

• A Roman fleet of over 200 ships was sent to Sicily in 241 BCE, giving control of the island and surrounding sea to Rome, leading to the collapse of Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily.

• Carthage felt humiliated, swearing to get revenge in the future. 

Rome’s land forces were able to easily defeat Carthaginian forces, but after this first war, Rome’s navy developed significantly.

Second Punic War: 218-202 BCE

• This war is the biggest and most impactful of the three, due to the successes of Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, who almost defeated Rome.

• Hannibal was the son of General Hamilcar Barca, and was made to swear eternal hostility to Rome.

• Hannibal was incredibly successful and determined.

  • Hannibal was able to cross the Alps with his army from Gaul, bringing half of his army and large numbers of war elephants.

Wreaked havoc in Italy for over 15 years.

Second Punic War: 218-202 BCE

• Despite the disaster at Cannae, Rome was able to defeat Carthage by attacking other regions, specifically Spain and North Africa.

• This diverted Hannibal from Italy to come into conflict with General Scipio at Battle of Zama, in Tunisia, Africa.

• Rome’s victories in Spain and North Africa ensured the Carthaginian defeat, as well as giving Rome control of Spain and portions of Gaul.

Third Punic War: 149-146 BCE

• This war began as a final nail in the coffin for Carthage.

• Rome wanted complete dominance over trade in the Mediterranean Sea and to destroy Carthage for making technological advances. 

• After a 3-year-long siege of the city of Carthage, Rome was victorious, obliterating the city and selling over 50,000 people into slavery.

After the Punic Wars

The Gracchan Reforms

• After Punic Wars, generals came home with spoils from war and started buying up farms. 

  • Poverty increased as farmers could not compete with large estates that utilized slave labor (latifundia).

  • Soldiers returning from war struggled to start over or find a job. Swore allegiance more to their generals.

• Plebeians found champions in Tiberius Gracchus and his younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, tribunes who sought to bring about land reforms.

Patricians felt threatened by these reforms, conspiring to assassinate the Gracchi brothers and their supporters. They repealed the land reforms.

The Changing Republic c. 100 BCE

• Gracchan reforms made it so patricians and plebeians distrust and dislike each other more.

  • This would lead to significant rioting and street violence, as well as corruption at the upper levels of leadership.

• Roman soldiers started to swear loyalty to leaders rather than the Republic. 

  • Again, retired generals were given land and were rich from war. Poor soldiers needed them to help them survive. 

Leaders of Rome start to serve themselves rather than the Republic. The beginning of the breakdown of the Republic was starting.

The End of the Republic

• In 107 BCE, army general Gaius Marius was elected consul. He opened the military up to plebeians and created a professional soldiery. 

• One of his generals, Sulla, fought him for control of Rome from 88 to 82 B.C.E. in a bloody civil war. Sulla marched into Rome, took control of the Senate, and named himself dictator of Rome. (Does’t mean he is.)

• The Senate later gave generals Pompey and Crassus unprecedented power and authority, partly due to their ability stop a massive slave rebellion in 73 B.C.E. 

• In 63 B.C.E., consul Cicero warned that powers given to generals should be reduced and the prior system of democratic checks and balances should be restored.

  • Cicero’s warnings went unheeded, and the Republic began its path back to monarchy and ultimately its transition into the Roman Empire.

The First Triumvirate

Pompey and Crassus

• Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106 BCE to 48 BCE), also known as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a military leader during the collapse of the Republic.

• Marcus Licinius Crassus was reportedly one of the wealthiest individuals in Roman history. 

  • He used his vast wealth to buy his positions and consulships, while also using it to encourage others to support him.

• The two were powerful consuls together and grew too powerful for the Senate’s comfort level.

Due to this, the Senate brought on another man and had 3 consuls to regain some authority and say in decisions.

The First Triumvirate

• The First Triumvirate was an uneasy and tense alliance between three titans of Roman politics.

• This “Gang of Three” consisted of three individuals who held significant power in various aspects of Roman society: Crassus and Pompey (who were growing too powerful in the eyes of the Senate), and Julius Caesar, who was a rising political figure and well liked in society due to his military triumphs.

• Each one realized they needed to work together for the benefit of Rome, but were all in pursuit of their own gloria and dignitas.

Julius Caesar (100 BCE - 44 BCE)

• Excellent Military Commander

  • Conquered Spain, Gaul, and Germania

  • Invaded into what will become Britain

• Power Taker

  • Was immensely popular in Rome, so he sent Crassus to  a battle he knew he would lose – he died in 53 BCE.  

  • An ally of Caesar’s assassinated Pompey. The triumvirate collapsed and Caesar was appointed dictator in 49 BCE.

  • Crowned himself “dictator for life” in 44 BCE.

    • Remember, those in favor of the common people more easily became tyrants or dictators.

• Ladies Man

  • He got married three times (first two wives died) to women for their political connections (all three were daughters of powerful Senators).

  • He also had an affair with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt.

Caesar’s Assassination

• Many senators become uncomfortable with Caesar’s seizure of power, so a plot was established to remove him from power.

• Brutus, a friend of Caesar, and a group of senators who referred to themselves as Liberators attacked Caesar, stabbing him 23 times in the Senate chambers.

  • Goal: Return Rome to a Republic.

  • Outcome: The Republic will collapse.

He is assassinated on March 15, 44 BCE, called “The Ides of March.”

Republic to Empire

Factors That Weakened Republic

• Greed of the Rich Driving Up Poverty

• Inequality between Rich and Poor

  • Failed Land Reforms

• Ambitious Generals and Powerful Army Allegiances to Those Generals

• Civil War and Failure to Regain Democratic Principles

After Caesar’s Assassination

• After Caesar’s assassination, Marc Antony, one of Caesar’s generals, took charge and pardoned the conspirators, but kept all of Caesar’s laws in tact. 

However, before his death, Caesar had appointed his 18-year-old nephew/ adopted son Octavian as his heir and successor, and he quickly gained favor  with Caesar’s supporters.

The Second Triumvirate

• Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus (a Roman general) formed the                Second Triumvirate.

• They pursued the Senate forces and defeated Brutus and Cassius in Philippi in 42 BCE.

• They then purged the Senate, killing over 300 senators.  

• By 36 BCE, Lepidus was forced from Second Triumvirate.

• Mark Antony and Octavian would split control of the Empire between them, with Antony in the East and Octavian in the west.

• Antony would fall in love with the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, and they would attempt to assert their control over all of Rome.

• Octavian’s forces heard of this plot and destroyed Antony and Cleopatra’s forces at the Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece in 31 BCE.

  • Both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide rather than be prisoners of Octavian.

The Republic Ends

• Octavian vowed to restore the Republic, but in reality secured absolute authority for himself as imperator (emperor). 

• In 27 BCE, the Senate named Octavian princeps (first citizen) and he later took the title of “Augustus” (exalted one).

  • The Empire had started. 

  • The Empire will eventually also be a monarchy-styled Empire as from the first    emperor on, it will be hereditary.

• As the new Roman Emperor, he pursued a policy of peace and internal order, ushering in the Pax Romana, which lasted over 200 years.

Reasons for the Fall of the Republic and Rise of the Empire

• Spread of Slavery

• Migration of unemployed farmers to cities

• Assassination of Julius Caesar

• Civil Wars as Caesar gained power and after his assassination

• Devaluation of Roman Currency - Inflation

Summary of the Pax Romana

• During the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), we see rapid growth in Roman culture, politics, and economy in the years 27 BCE to 180 CE.

• We see improved health due to the construction of aqueducts and public baths.

• We see improved economic interaction due to Roman invention of cement roads and a common currency called the denarius.

• We see relative peace, despite the near constant expansion of the borders of the Empire.

Expansion, Agriculture, and Trade

• Increase the size of the empire: 3 million square miles

• Increase in population:

  • Empire: 60 to 80 million 

  • Rome (city): 1 million

• Agriculture was most important industry:

  • 90% of people were engaged in farming.

• Used coinage called denarius.

• Relied on large trading networks with China and India through Silk Roads.

  • Numerous roads built for trade – connected empires as far as Russia.

  • Built and patrolled by Roman Army.

Society and Slaves

• Gravitas: Values of discipline, strength, and loyalty.

• Men: Power to rule household (patriarchy).

• Women: Became social equals of men, could own property but could not vote under Empire.

  • Boys become citizens with the right to vote.

  • Girls were given the feminine form of their father’s name. Ex: Augustus’ daughter = Augusta.

• Slaves made up 1/3 of Roman population.

  • Prisoners of war.

  • Considered property: could be sold, punished, rewarded, set free, or put to death.

• Strong healthy slaves were forced to become gladiators who fought to death in public forums.

Entertainment

• Roman classes were divided. Rich lived extravagantly: Spent money on luxuries and homes.

• Majority were poor and unemployed: lived in crowded housing.

• To control the masses, the government provided free entertainment called Bread and Circuses: games, races, and gladiator contests. 

  • They would even fill the Colosseum with water and have mock naval battles. Let’s watch a video of a gladiator scene.

• Coliseum: Huge arena that could hold 50,000 people and held gladiatorial competitions.

• Circus Maximus: Racetrack that could hold 200,000+ people and had chariot races. 

Christianity

Origins of Christianity

• Christianity has its roots in Judaism.

• Jesus of Nazareth

  • Born in the time of Augustus Caesar in the Roman province of Judaea (around 6-4 BCE but exact date unknown). His birthday is known as Christmas. He grew up to be a Jewish carpenter.

• Preached a message of salvation, peace, and the coming of God’s kingdom.

• Preached social change and social justice and promoted ideas that often differed from traditional Jewish and Roman beliefs and practices. 

• Gathered twelve disciples, later known as the apostles, who shared in his ministry and spread of the religion. 

• Shared parables (stories/analogies) of daily life to explain his teachings.

What happened to Jesus?

• Romans let Jewish practice their religion freely, as long as they swore allegiance to Roman law and the emperor. (There are pockets of time, when their religion comes under attack.)

• Since Jesus was Jewish and his teachings and preachings went against Jewish teachings (they did not believe Jesus was the messiah), Jewish authorities charged Jesus with blasphemy (violating religious law) and Jesus was betrayed and crucified by order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea.

• He was crucified under Roman law along with two other common criminals. Read ahead about his resurrection and ascent into heaven.

The Bible: Christianity’s Holy Text

• The Holy Bible is the primary Christian holy text, outlining beliefs and practices that Christians are expected to follow.

• The Bible consists of two major parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament.

  • The Old Testament includes passages derived from the Torah, the holy text of the Hebrews (Jews). (The Torah is the first 5 books of the Old Testament.)

Christian Beliefs

• Christians are monotheistic, belief on one God, due to having arisen from the Jewish faith.

• The essence of Christianity revolves around the life, death, and Christian beliefs of the resurrection of Jesus–that is, arise to heaven after death.

  • Christians believe God sent his son Jesus Christ, the Messiah, to save the world. Sacrificing his life through his own death enabled the forgiveness of sins and the promise of everlasting life to all followers. 

  • Christ = “Anointed One” 

• Messiah = in Jewish and later Christian tradition, one sent by God to restore God’s kingdom on Earth.  Jews do not recognize Jesus as the Messiah and believe that the Messiah is yet to appear.

• The day of Jesus’ crucifixion (his public death penalty) is called Good Friday. 

  • Followers claimed that he rose from the dead on the third day after his death (called the resurrection), which Christians believe represents the victory over sin and death on earth.

• The day of the resurrection of Jesus is called Easter. 

• Christians believe Jesus later ascended (went up to) to heaven, promising to return in glory. (He is seated at the right hand of the Father, the true God. Therefore, this is called the trinity: the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, which make up one universal God in the name of Jesus).

• INCARNATION: God becomes flesh and embodies the divine world as Jesus. 

• SALVATION for those who have faith in him, there is the atonement for sin. That is, if you repent your earthly sins, you can be accepted into the kingdom of heaven. 

• NEW COVENANT between God and humankind.

  • Eucharist: The Christian ceremony commemorating the Last Supper, in which bread and wine are consecrated and consumed.

• BAPTISM is meant to represent a Christian’s “death and rebirth.”

• Note:  In the modern world, there are multiple interpretations of Christianity. They all have a belief in Jesus as the Messiah, but have varying theological interpretations regarding religious practices and other expressions of faith.

Christianity Spreads

• The New Testament traces the rise of the early Christian church under the leadership of the apostles Peter and Paul.

  • The Apostolic Church consisted of Jewish people who accepted Jesus as the Christ (Messiah), as well as Gentiles (a person who is not Jewish but lives under Roman law) who also embraced Christianity.

  • Paul's missionary journeys spread the Gospel beyond Judaea to Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome by 60 CE. 

• Early Christian Church is known as the ecclesia.

Early Reaction of Roman Empire

• Government and religion were linked together. This is called a theocracy.

  • Deities (gods) were symbols of state. Most important: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva.

  • Worship of the emperor also became part of official law (theocracy).

• Christians refusal to worship the emperor as a deity and their beliefs in Christ as the “king of kings” who would return to rule challenged the emperor as being seen as divine.

  • Emperor Nero persecuted the early church leaders and blamed a devastating fire in Rome (64 CE) on the Christians. Persecutions forced the church to go “underground” into the Roman Catacombs. Martyr: a person who is killed because of their religious beliefs.

• Eventually, Constantine the Great converted to Christianity and passed the Edict of Milan, decriminalizing Christianity in Roman Empire.

Aksum

• African Kingdom in Eastern Africa, located near the Nile River and the Ethiopian Highlands (modern-day Ethiopia). 

• Rose to power between 3rd and 6th centuries CE.

• Became a great market in NE Africa. Merchants traded with civilizations beyond the Nile River.

Became a Christian kingdom in the 4th century CE, thereby becoming politically and economically linked with Rome.

Recap of Christianity

• Roman Empire expands to encompass many different cultures and religions in its 2 million square miles. 

• Tolerant of any group that ALSO worships their emperor as a  god, a theocracy.

• Conquered the Jewish City of Jerusalem in 63 B.C.E.

  • Brought the Jewish people under the control of Rome and their laws. At first, it was peaceful. 

• In 70 C.E. Herod’s Temple was destroyed:  Jews were defeated and forced to spread throughout the empire. 

• A failed revolt in 132 C.E. led to the Diaspora of the Jews from all parts of the Roman Empire.

• Recall that Christianity has its roots in Judaism. Jews and Gentiles started to convert to Christianity as it promised all peoples eternal peace after death.

Pax Romana Review

• The Roman peace established by Caesar Augustus lasted until A.D. 180 and was characterized by:

  • Relative peace – fighting still continued on the frontiers but Rome’s power held over enemies.

  • Great economic prosperity, although the lion’s share of wealth went to the patricians.

  • Common coinage (denarius) and effective and widespread road system that enhanced trade. 

  • Use of Latin and Greek as common languages.

  • Stable system of government based on an effective civil service that could even withstand the instability produced under the so-called “bad” emperors (Caligula, Nero, Domitian).

  • “Good” emperors dominated from 96-180 CE (ex., Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius), each of whom adopted heirs.

• Emperors worshipped as deities (gods), so a theology. Christianity will emerge as a counter religion during this time.

  Before the Fall of the Empire

• At its peak in 117 CE, the Roman Empire covered roughly 2 million square miles over three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa.

  • It is estimated to have been home to 60-70 million people (larger than Persia, which at the time of its height made up over half the world’s population).

• As the Empire grew, the size became too much for Rome to effectively govern, especially in the European areas, costing too much in military overspending to     defend borders against Germanic invaders: pastoral nomads north of Rome that are pushing South for better lands. 

• There were 54 total emperors over an almost 500-year period.

Natural Disasters Affect Economy: Pompeii

• Pompeii was an important city within Italy from the time period of Greek settlers, becoming an attraction for the wealthy, near modern-day Naples.

• Pompeii experienced a natural disaster, when Mount Vesuvius erupted on August 24, 79 CE, blanketing the city in ash.

  • Eruption had roughly 100,000 times more force than the atomic bombs used in WWII.

  • Total death toll is unknown, but the cities surrounding Vesuvius had a population of 20,000 people, with a confirmed 1,500 bodies excavated.

• Much of what we know about this event comes from archaeological ruins.

• Natural disasters like this helped contribute to monetary issues in the Empire.

Bad Emperors Impact Roman Empire

• Some emperors were more focused on their personal glory rather than governing, which led to a significant growth in political corruption at the top level as well as within the provinces.

• Taxes would be raised to serve their wants and needs, widening the gap between the rich and poor and leading to inflation.

  • Inflation: an increase in prices and fall in value of money (denarius).

• The frontiers would be ignored by some emperors, leaving them prone to invasions and attacks.

The Year of the Four Emperors

• In 69 CE, Emperor Nero committed suicide, freeing up the position of Emperor.

• This marked the end of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty (Julius Caesar’s family line).

• Over the course of the year, four people held the title and position of Emperor.

  • Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian

• Vespasian took power and faced no major political threats.

There Were Good Emperors

Diocletian: 284-305 CE

• Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305 CE) inherited an empire on the verge of collapse due to the size, civil wars, and invasion from barbarians (non-Romans).

  • Barbarians from Germania and Gaul invading in the west and Attila the Hun invading in the east.

• His solution was to divide Empire into an East and West, called a tetrarchy (four areas ruled by two head and two junior emperors).

  • Eastern Empire ruled from Byzantium by Diocletian. 

  • Western Empire ruled from Milan by Maximilian.

In the short term, this made the Empire more manageable. But East and West failed to work together well and operated like separate Empires. Within 20 years, there was permanent split. Eastern Empire started to grow stronger while invasions from Germanic tribes in Western Empire made it grow weaker.

Germanic tribal invasions (pastoral nomads) led to Roman forces being stretched thin, a sped-up training process, and eventual use of mercenaries: hired soldiers. Ultimately, Western Rome could not withstand constant invasions. The city of Rome was even sacked in 410 CE by the Visigoths.

Constantine: Emperor 306-337 CE

• He fought and won a civil war against the Emperor of the West, becoming the sole Emperor of Rome.

  • The Empire will split again when his sons take control.

• He decided to move the capital of Rome to the city of Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople.

• He converted to Christianity after a vision in battle (he had prayed before the battle and he saw a cross).

  • He issued the Edict of Milan that legalized Christianity in 313 CE and it became the official religion of the Empire in 380 CE under Theodosius I.

• Rome officially re-splits East and West in 395 CE.

Western Roman Empire Falls

• The Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire ended at different times for different reasons.

• Western Roman Empire, located in Iberia, Gaul, North Africa, Britannia, Italy, and parts of Germania would fall in 476 CE when Germanic invaders deposed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus.

  • This led to the formation of many different Germanic kingdoms, marking the transition   to the Middle Ages. Stay tuned!

• Eastern Roman Empire would remain in power and united, with the capital of Constantinople, until 1453 CE. This is a continuation of the Roman Empire, but would become known as the Byzantine Empire, our next unit of study.

Key Reasons Western Rome Falls

1. Invasions by Barbarians: Constant attacks from non-Roman invaders in the north and east.

2. Economics: Reliance on slave labor caused labor shortages and struggles with invaders kept Roman army from further expansion and gaining new recruits as a result. 

3. Weakening of Roman Army: The use of mercenaries who had no loyalty to the empire.

4. Overexpansion: Too vast a territory to govern and militarily defend. 

5. Rise of Eastern Empire: Eastern Empire became more fortified against invaders and left Western Empire prone to attacks since over time, they operated like separate empires. 

6. Political instability: Inconsistent leadership over the years made it hard to have a consistent government across the empire. Even guards would assassinate the emperor they were hired to protect if they were offered large enough bribes.

7. Huns invaded Europe: This pushed Germanic tribes even closer to Roman borders near Italian peninsula and some even allowed into Italy and treated horribly and eventually revolt. 

8. Rise of Christianity: No longer seeing the emperor as a god. Religious leaders also start to get involved politically.  Shifted focus onto a sole god (the king of kings).