Qualitative research: Its main focus is an in-depth study of a particular phenomenon. Qualitative research makes use of data collection methods such as interviews, case studies, focus groups, or observations.

Credibility in Qualitative Research

Credibility in qualitative research is equal to internal validity in the experimental method

1. Triangulation: Combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data. There are four types of it;

   • Method triangulation: The usage of different methods in combination

   • Data triangulation: Usage of data from a variety of sources

   • Researcher triangulation: Combining observations/ interpretations of different researchers

   • Theory triangulation: Usage of multiple perspectives

2. Establishing a rapport: Researchers should ensure that participants are being honest.

3. Iterative questioning: On sensitive topics, there is a risk that participants will distort data either intentionally or unintentionally. Researchers should spot this and return to the topic later on and rephrase the question.

4. Reflexivity: Researchers should reflect on the possibility that their biases might have interfered with their observations. There are two types of it;

   • Epistemological reflexivity: knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data

   • Personal reflexivity: linked to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher

5. Credibility checks: Checking the accuracy of the data by asking the participants to read transcripts and confirm.

6. Thick descriptions: Explaining not only the behavior but also the context in which it occurred.

Bias in Qualitative Research

1. Participant Bias:

   • Acquiescence bias: tendency to give positive answers

   • Social desirability bias: tendency to respond in a way they think will make them liked or accepted

   • Dominant respondent bias: the tendency of one of the participants in a group to influence the responses of others

   • Sensitivity bias: the tendency to answer regular questions honestly but distort responses on sensitive topics

2. Researcher Bias:

   • Confirmation bias: when the researcher has a prior belief and uses the research to confirm that belief

   • Leading questions bias: occurs when a question is worded a certain way that inclines the response in a certain way

   • Question order bias: responses to one question can influence the participant’s response to the following question

   • Sampling bias: when the sample is not adequate for the aim of the research

   • Biased reporting: occurs when some findings of the study aren’t equally represented in the research report

Sampling in Qualitative Research

1. Quota sampling: It is priorly decided how many people to include in the sample and which characteristics they should have

2. Purposive sampling: It is similar to quota sampling but the sample size is not defined.

3. Theoretical sampling: Stops when the point of data saturation is reached. (when no new information is being obtained from new participants)

4. Snowball sampling: A small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know.

5. Convenience sampling: Using a sample that is easily available or accessible.

Generalizability in Qualitative Research

1. Sample-to-population: Done by first identifying the target population and then selecting a sample accordingly.

2. Theoretical generalization: Generalization is made from particular observations to a broader theory.

3. Case-to-case: Generalization is made to a different group of people or a different setting or context.

Qualitative Research Methods

1. Observation:

   • Laboratory vs. naturalistic observation: Naturalistic observation is done in naturally occurring settings while laboratory observation is done in places arranged for the study.

   • Overt/ covert observation: In overt observation, the participants are aware that they are being observed but in covert observation, they are not aware of it.

   • Participant observation: In this method, the observer becomes part of the observed group.

   • Structured vs. unstructured observation: Structured observation is recorded systematically (checklist of behaviors etc.) but unstructured observations don’t have a pre-defined structure, and observers take note of whatever they think is important.

2. Interview:

   • It is a method which is more straightforward to feelings.

   • Helps understand the participant’s POV.

   • It is useful when the topic at hand is a sensitive one.

   • There are three types;

     • structured interviews (set questions, set order)

     • semi-structured interviews (some set questions)

     • unstructured interviews (only set topic)

3. Focus Group:

   • Similar to a semi-structured interview but is conducted with 3-10 people.

   • A big advantage of using focus groups is that they create natural environments and you get access to different perspectives in a short period of time.

   • A disadvantage of using focus groups is that a dominant person could change everything.

4. Content Analysis:

   • Is the analysis that the researcher makes by interview recordings in order to minimize the researcher bias.

5. Case Study:

   • It is the in-depth investigation of an individual or group.

Ethical Considerations

1. Informed consent

2. Protection from harm

3. Anonymity

4. Withdrawal from participation (participants should be able to withdraw from the study whenever they wish to)

5. Deception (the case when the true aim of the study cannot be revealed to the participants, it should be kept to the necessary minimum)

6. Debriefing (giving information about the exact details of the study after it ends)

Ethical Considerations in Reporting the Results

1. Data fabrication

2. Plagiarism

3. Publication credit

4. Sharing research data for verification

5. Handling of sensitive personal information (mental disorder related, information obtained in genetic research)

6. Social implications of reporting scientific results