PSYCH Test 2 Notes

Psychology Test 2 Comprehensive Study Guide

Sensation & Perception (Modules 18-19)

Basic Concepts

• Sensation → Sensory receptors receive and transmit stimulus energies.

• Perception → Organizing and interpreting sensory information.

• Transduction → Converting sensory stimuli into neural impulses.

• Psychophysics → Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and perception.

  • Example: If you feel a feather brushing your skin but don't notice it when you're focused on something else, psychophysics explains why this happens.

Thresholds

• Absolute Threshold → Minimum stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time.

• Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND) → Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

• Weber’s Law → Two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage to be perceived as different.

• Signal Detection Theory → Predicts how and when a faint stimulus is detected amid background noise.

  • Example: A security guard may notice a quiet sound in a silent environment but might miss it in a noisy setting due to signal detection variations.

• Sensory Adaptation → Reduced sensitivity due to constant exposure to a stimulus.

  • Example: You stop noticing a strong perfume after a few minutes of wearing it.

Vision

• Rods → Night vision & peripheral vision (work in dim light).

• Cones → Detect color & fine detail, concentrated in the fovea.

• Parallel Processing → Brain processes multiple visual aspects (color, depth, motion, form) simultaneously.

• Trichromatic Theory → Three types of cones (red, green, blue).

• Opponent-Process Theory → Colors processed in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow).

  • Example: After staring at a red image and looking at a blank wall, you may see a green afterimage due to the opponent-process theory.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues (Require both eyes) → Retinal disparity (difference in images from both eyes creates depth).

• Monocular Cues (Require one eye) → Linear perspective, interposition, relative size, texture gradient, light/shadow.

  • Example: A railroad track appearing to converge in the distance demonstrates linear perspective.

Hearing & Other Senses (Module 20)

• Place Theory → Different parts of the cochlea detect different pitches.

• Frequency Theory → Pitch perception depends on the rate of neural impulses.

• Gate-Control Theory → The spinal cord has a "gate" that regulates pain signals.

  • Example: Rubbing a bumped elbow can reduce pain by blocking some pain signals from reaching the brain.

• Sensory Interaction → One sense influences another (e.g., smell affects taste).

  • Example: Food tastes bland when you have a cold because smell contributes to flavor perception.

Learning (Modules 21-22)

Classical Conditioning

• Definition → Learning through association (Pavlov’s experiment).

• Generalization → Responding to similar stimuli in the same way.

• Discrimination → Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus.

  • Example: A dog trained to respond to a specific bell tone may not react to other sounds.

Operant Conditioning

• Positive Reinforcement → Adding something pleasant to increase behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement → Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.

• Positive Punishment → Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior.

• Negative Punishment → Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior.

  • Example: Losing access to video games as a consequence for bad behavior is negative punishment.

Memory (Modules 23-25)

Types of Memory

• Explicit Memory → Facts & experiences (requires conscious recall).

• Implicit Memory → Skills & conditioned responses (unconscious recall).

Encoding Strategies

• Chunking → Grouping information to improve memory.

• Mnemonics → Memory aids using imagery or acronyms (e.g., ROYGBIV).

  • Example: Remembering a phone number by breaking it into chunks makes recall easier.

Thinking & Language (Modules 26-27)

• Algorithm → Step-by-step method that guarantees a solution.

• Heuristic → Mental shortcut that is faster but can lead to errors.

  • Example: Using trial-and-error to guess a password rather than systematically testing every combination.

• Confirmation Bias → Seeking information that supports pre-existing beliefs.

• Availability Heuristic → Judging likelihood based on how easily something comes to mind.

  • Example: After hearing about plane crashes in the news, people may overestimate the danger of flying.

Motivation (Modules 32-33)

• Drive-Reduction Theory → Motivation arises from biological needs (maintaining homeostasis).

• Arousal Theory → We seek an optimal level of arousal for performance.

  • Example: A student who is slightly anxious about an exam may perform better than one who is overly stressed or too relaxed.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs → Physiological → Safety → Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization.

Emotion & Stress (Modules 35-38)

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory → Emotion follows physiological response (I feel scared because my heart is racing).

• Cannon-Bard Theory → Emotion & physiological response occur simultaneously.

• Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory → Emotion = Arousal + Cognitive Label.

  • Example: After running up stairs, someone who receives good news might feel extra happy because their heart is already racing.

Stress & Coping

• Fight-or-Flight Response → Body’s automatic reaction to stress (sympathetic nervous system activation).

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) → The body's stress response: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion.

• Problem-Focused Coping → Addressing the cause of stress directly.

• Emotion-Focused Coping → Managing emotional reactions to stress.

  • Example: Studying for an exam (problem-focused coping) vs. watching a movie to distract yourself (emotion-focused coping).

• Learned Helplessness → Giving up after repeated failure.

  • Example: A student who repeatedly fails math tests may stop trying, believing they will never succeed.

Final Steps for Studying

1. Use this guide for active recall. Cover up sections and try to recall the definitions.

2. Apply concepts to real-life examples to reinforce understanding.

3. Do practice multiple-choice questions to test comprehension.

This finalized study guide now contains everything from the textbook, PowerPoints, and previous notes, with real-world examples for trickier topics. Let me know if you’d like me to generate practice questions based on this material! 🚀

Short Answer Responses for Test 2

1. What are sensation and perception? What do we mean by bottom-up and top-down processing?
   Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus energies from our environment, while perception is the process of organizing and interpreting that sensory information. Bottom-up processing refers to analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing, such as detecting individual features before forming a whole. Top-down processing, in contrast, is guided by higher-level cognitive processes, such as prior experience, expectations, and context.

   • Example: When looking at a blurry image, bottom-up processing allows us to detect shapes and edges, while top-down processing helps us recognize it as a familiar object like a dog.

2. How do our expectations, context, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions?
   Perception is shaped by psychological factors beyond sensory input. Expectations prime us to perceive stimuli in a particular way (e.g., seeing a ghostly figure in the dark due to prior beliefs in ghosts). Context influences perception, such as interpreting an ambiguous shape differently in a work setting versus a party. Motivation impacts perception by making desirable objects appear closer. Emotions, such as happiness or fear, can color our perception of situations, influencing judgments and decisions.

   • Example: A basketball player who is highly motivated may perceive the hoop as larger and easier to score in during a game-winning shot.

3. How do the rods and cones process information, and what is the path information travels from the eye to the brain?
   Rods, which are more sensitive to light, process black-and-white vision and function well in dim light, while cones detect color and fine detail in bright light. Visual information travels from the retina through bipolar and ganglion cells to the optic nerve, crosses at the optic chiasm, and is sent via the thalamus to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe.

   • Example: If you wake up in the middle of the night, your rods allow you to see in low light, but when you turn the lights on, your cones take over to help you see color and detail.

4. How do we perceive color in the world around us?
   The trichromatic theory suggests that three types of cones (red, green, blue) combine to produce color perception. The opponent-process theory proposes that colors are perceived in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow). Both theories explain aspects of color vision, with trichromatic theory explaining how colors are detected and opponent-process theory explaining afterimages.

   • Example: After staring at a bright red image and then looking at a blank wall, you may see a green afterimage due to the opponent-process theory.

5. How do we use binocular and monocular cues to see the world in three dimensions?
   Binocular cues, requiring both eyes, include retinal disparity (differences in images between each eye) and convergence (the inward turning of the eyes when looking at nearby objects). Monocular cues, which can be seen with one eye, include linear perspective (parallel lines converging), interposition (objects blocking others appear closer), and texture gradient (more detailed objects appear closer).

   • Example: When driving, you use monocular cues like relative size to judge how far cars are in front of you, while depth perception allows you to determine their distance accurately.

6. How does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages?
   Sound waves enter the ear canal, causing the eardrum to vibrate. These vibrations pass through the ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) to the cochlea, where hair cells in the basilar membrane transduce mechanical energy into neural signals. The auditory nerve then sends these signals to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe for processing.

   • Example: At a concert, sound waves from the speakers vibrate your eardrum, which is then translated into the music you hear.

7. In what way are our senses of taste and smell similar, and how do they differ?
   Both taste and smell are chemical senses that detect molecules in the environment. However, taste (gustation) is limited to five basic tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami), while smell (olfaction) can detect thousands of different odors. Unlike taste, which relies on taste buds, smell receptors in the nasal cavity send information directly to the brain's olfactory bulb.

   • Example: When you have a cold and your nose is stuffy, food may taste bland because your sense of smell is impaired.

8. How do we define learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?
   Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. The main types include classical conditioning (learning associations between stimuli), operant conditioning (learning via rewards/punishments), and observational learning (learning through modeling behavior).

   • Example: A child learns to say "please" because they are praised (operant conditioning) and because they see their parents using polite language (observational learning).

9. In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?
   Acquisition is the initial learning of an association. Extinction occurs when the conditioned response weakens after repeated exposure without reinforcement. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response. Generalization occurs when similar stimuli elicit the same response, whereas discrimination is the ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

   • Example: If a dog is conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, generalization occurs when it salivates to a different bell tone, but discrimination happens when it only salivates to the original bell sound.

10. Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?
    B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist who studied operant conditioning. Operant behavior is reinforced through positive reinforcement (adding something desirable) or negative reinforcement (removing something unpleasant). Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

• Example: A coach shapes a player's basketball shooting technique by rewarding small improvements, like proper hand positioning, until they master the full shot.

11. How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?
    Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase behavior, while negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus. Primary reinforcers (e.g., food, water) are naturally reinforcing, while secondary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise) gain value through association.

• Example: A student receives a sticker for completing homework (positive reinforcement), while another student avoids detention by submitting their work on time (negative reinforcement).

12. How do distributed practice, deep processing, and making new material personally meaningful aid memory?
    Distributed practice (spacing learning over time) improves retention. Deep processing (thinking about meaning rather than surface features) enhances recall. Making information personally meaningful, such as relating new concepts to personal experiences, strengthens encoding.

• Example: A student studies for an exam by relating psychology concepts to their own life experiences, leading to better retention than simple rote memorization.

13. What is the serial position effect, and how does it affect memory recall?
    The serial position effect states that we remember the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a list better than middle items. This impacts learning by suggesting that reviewing information at different times can improve retention.

• Example: When recalling a grocery list, a person is more likely to remember the first and last few items rather than those in the middle.

14. What are the three types of problem-solving strategies, and what are their advantages and disadvantages?
    Algorithms (step-by-step procedures) guarantee a solution but can be slow. Heuristics (mental shortcuts) are faster but prone to errors. Insight (sudden realization) can be efficient but is unpredictable.

• Example: A person trying to open a password-protected account may use an algorithm (trying all possible passwords), a heuristic (guessing based on patterns), or insight (suddenly remembering the password).

15. What is the two-factor theory of emotion, and how does it explain our emotional experiences?
    Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory suggests that emotion arises from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. For example, if our heart races and we see a bear, we label the arousal as fear, whereas if we are at a concert, we label it as excitement.

• Example: After running up stairs, someone receives good news and feels extra happy because their physiological arousal amplifies the positive emotion.

16. How do emotions influence our perception and thinking?
    Emotions shape our perceptions by influencing how we interpret stimuli. For example, a fearful person may perceive a neutral face as threatening. Positive emotions broaden our thinking, increasing creativity and problem-solving, while negative emotions narrow focus, helping with survival in dangerous situations.

• Example: A person in a good mood might interpret a stranger’s neutral expression as friendly, while someone in a bad mood might see it as hostile.

17. What is the facial feedback effect? How does it support the James-Lange theory of emotion?
    The facial feedback effect suggests that facial expressions can influence emotions. Smiling can make a person feel happier, supporting the James-Lange theory, which states that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience (e.g., "I feel happy because I am smiling").

• Example: Holding a pen between the teeth (forcing a smile) has been shown to make people feel happier compared to holding it between their lips.

18. What are the key components of stress, and how do we respond to stressors?
    Stress involves a physical and psychological response to perceived challenges. The body's response follows Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Alarm (fight-or-flight activation), Resistance (sustained stress response), and Exhaustion (depletion of resources).

• Example: A student experiencing prolonged stress from exams may feel exhausted and more susceptible to illness after completing them.

19. What are problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies?
    Problem-focused coping addresses the root cause of stress (e.g., studying harder for a difficult test). Emotion-focused coping manages emotional reactions (e.g., talking to a friend about stress). Both are useful depending on the situation.

• Example: A person facing job stress might use problem-focused coping by improving work efficiency, or emotion-focused coping by exercising to relieve tension.

20. What are the effects of perceived control and social support on health and stress management?
    Higher perceived control over life events leads to lower stress levels. Social support reduces stress by providing emotional and practical assistance, improving well-being and boosting immune function.

• Example: A cancer patient with a strong support system from family and friends may experience lower stress levels and better recovery outcomes.

21. What is learned helplessness, and how does it develop?
    Learned helplessness occurs when individuals experience repeated failure and believe they have no control over their environment, leading to passive behavior. This can contribute to depression and low motivation.

• Example: A student who repeatedly fails math tests may stop trying, believing they will never succeed.

22. How do attitudes and behavior influence each other?
    Attitudes can shape behavior when they are strong and specific (e.g., a person against animal cruelty may avoid purchasing leather). Behavior can also shape attitudes, such as the foot-in-the-door phenomenon, where agreeing to small requests leads to larger commitments.

• Example: A person who initially supports environmental causes online may begin actively volunteering due to their growing commitment.

23. What is cognitive dissonance, and how do we reduce it?
    Cognitive dissonance occurs when attitudes and behaviors conflict, creating discomfort. To reduce it, individuals may change their attitude ("Smoking isn't that bad"), change their behavior (quit smoking), or justify it ("I only smoke occasionally").

• Example: A person who believes in healthy eating but enjoys fast food may rationalize by saying they eat healthy most of the time.

24. How do the presence of others influence our actions?
    Social facilitation improves performance on simple tasks but hinders complex ones. Social loafing occurs when people put in less effort in group settings. Deindividuation leads to loss of self-awareness in groups, increasing impulsive behavior.

• Example: A basketball player performs better when playing in front of a large audience (social facilitation), but a group project member may contribute less effort, assuming others will compensate (social loafing).

25. What are the causes and consequences of group polarization and groupthink?
    Group polarization strengthens preexisting attitudes in a group, leading to extreme decisions. Groupthink occurs when the desire for harmony overrides realistic decision-making, often resulting in poor outcomes.

• Example: A jury discussing a trial may become more extreme in their verdict as members reinforce each other’s views (group polarization).

26. What factors contribute to prejudice, and how can it be reduced?
    Prejudice arises from social divisions, stereotypes, and emotional scapegoating. It can be reduced through increased contact, cooperative intergroup activities, and perspective-taking.

• Example: A workplace diversity training program encourages employees from different backgrounds to work together on a team project, reducing biases through collaboration.

27. How does the mere exposure effect influence attraction?
    The mere exposure effect states that repeated exposure to something increases our liking for it. This applies to people, music, and advertisements, contributing to familiarity and preference.

• Example: A student who repeatedly sees the same classmate every day may develop a sense of friendship or attraction due to familiarity, even without much interaction.

28. What are the three components of love according to Sternberg’s triangular theory?
    Love consists of intimacy (emotional closeness), passion (physical attraction), and commitment (decision to maintain the relationship). Different combinations lead to different types of love, such as romantic love (intimacy + passion) and companionate love (intimacy + commitment).

• Example: A couple dating for a few months may experience romantic love, while a married couple who have been together for decades may exhibit companionate love.

29. How do altruism and social norms influence helping behavior?
    Altruism is selfless concern for others, often motivated by empathy. The reciprocity norm suggests that we help those who help us, while the social responsibility norm suggests that we should help those in need, even without direct benefit.

• Example: A person donates money to a stranger’s GoFundMe campaign, not expecting anything in return, demonstrating altruistic behavior.

30. What are the psychological and social-cultural factors that contribute to aggression?
    Biological factors (genes, hormones) interact with psychological (frustration, aggression-reinforcing experiences) and social-cultural influences (media, social roles) to shape aggression. Exposure to violent media can desensitize individuals and increase aggressive tendencies.

• Example: A child who frequently plays violent video games may become more likely to interpret ambiguous social interactions as hostile, leading to increased aggression.