1.2 Data Collection

Conducting Research Studies

• It’s important for the general public to understand the structure and execution of research studies in order to be informed citizens

• Sociologists progress through the following stages in conducting research on a social problem

Stage One: Formulating a Research Question

• A research study usually begins with a research question

• Question may come from the researcher’s own life experiences, personal values, test a particular sociological theory, or reflect current events or concerns of community groups/activist organizations

  • Eg. Why does homelessness exist?

Stage Two: Reviewing the Literature

• A review of published material on the topic to find out what is already known about it

  • Eg. Governments are not doing enough to lower homelessness in society

Stage Three: Defining Variables

• Variable: any measurable event, characteristic, or property that varies or is subject to change

• Researchers must operationally define the variables they study to specify how a variable is to be measured

• Operational definitions are particularly important for defining variables that cannot be directly observed; specify how a variable is to be measured

  • Eg. Homelessness is defined as a person who lacks a permanent, regular,
    and safe shelter

Stage Four: Formulating a Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: a prediction about how one variable is related to another variable

• Dependent variable: the variable that the researcher wants to explain

• Independent variable: the variable that is expected to explain change in the dependent variable

• In formulating a hypothesis, researchers predict how the independent variable affects the dependent variable

  • Eg. Communities that lack living wage mandates tend to have higher homelessness rates

Methods of Data Collection

• Experiments involve manipulating the independent variable to determine how it affects the dependent variable

  • Assess causation by manipulating the independent variable to determine how it affects the dependent variable

  • Requires one or more experimental groups that are exposed to the experimental treatment(s) and a control group that is not exposed

  • Major strength: provides evidence for causal relationships

  • Major weakness: results from small samples and artificial laboratory settings; may not be generalizable to people in natural settings

• Surveys involve eliciting information from respondents through questions

  • Requires a representative sample

    • Sample: a portion of the population, selected to be representative so that information from the sample is generalizable to a larger population

  • Types of surveys include:

    • Interviews

      • Advantages: interviewers can clarify questions and follow up on answers

      • Disadvantages: cost; lack of privacy and anonymity that may result in respondents refusing to participate or concealing or altering information

    • Questionnaires

      • Advantages: Less expensive and less time-consuming; Provide privacy and anonymity to the respondents thus increasing the likelihood of truthful answers

      • Disadvantage: difficult to obtain an adequate response rate

    • Web-based surveys

      • A new method of conducting survey research through web-based surveys

      • Reduce many of the problems associated with traditional surveys.

• Field research involves observing social behavior in settings in which it occurs naturally

  • Participant observation: the researcher participates in the phenomenon being studied to obtain an insider’s perspective

  • Nonparticipant observation: the researcher observes the phenomenon being studied without actively participating

  • Sometimes sociologists conduct in-depth detailed analyses or case studies of an individual, group, or event

  • Advantage: Provides detailed information about values, rituals, norms, behaviors, symbols, beliefs, and emotions of those being studied

  • Disadvantages: Researchers' observations may be biased; findings may not be generalizable due to small samples

• Secondary data: data that have already been collected by other researchers or government agencies or that exist as historical documents

  • Advantages: Researchers avoid time and expense of collecting data and is readily accessible; Often based on large, representative samples

  • Disadvantage: Researcher is limited to the data already collected