Imperialism History Notes

Part 1

Introduction to the North American West

The lands that now make up the United States of America were long inhabited by diverse Indigenous peoples, each with their own distinct cultures, languages, and social structures. Prior to European arrival, complex societies thrived, from the mound-building Mississippians to the nomadic tribes of the Great Plains. The process of conquest and colonization began in earnest in the early sixteenth century when major European imperial powers launched invasions of North America. Following the initial invasions, wave after wave of Europeans arrived, driven by the promise of land, resources, and economic opportunity. The primary motivations for these colonizers were to acquire territory for agricultural development, extract valuable resources, and exploit the land for economic and political benefit. They often resorted to warfare and violence to conquer Native American territory, a land that had been inhabited for centuries before European invasions. In this brutal process of colonization, European settlers also utilized the involuntary labor of enslaved peoples to profit from the conquered lands, further complicating the socio-economic relationships in the New World.

Definitions

• Dispossession: The act of taking land away from its original inhabitants, resulting in a systemic loss of rights, culture, and identity for Native American peoples.

• Settlers: People who colonize land seized from its original inhabitants, often leading to the disruption of Indigenous cultures and societies.

• Ideology: A deeply ingrained set of beliefs, values, and assumptions that govern the actions and policies of individuals and nations, often used to justify injustices.

• Frontier: The extreme edge of governed territory; for American settlers, this frontier represented prime lands previously inhabited by Indigenous communities that were coveted for expansion.

• Treaty: Official legal agreements between nations or peoples, often disregarded or violated by colonial powers.

• Elites: Wealthy and powerful members of society who often influenced governmental decisions and policies, prioritizing their interests over those of Indigenous populations.

Historical Context

After gaining independence from Britain in the American Revolution (1775-1783), the newly formed United States engaged in a series of wars and policies aimed at territorial expansion. U.S. government actions included establishing treaties with Native American tribes, often under duress, and subsequently declaring war when those tribes resisted colonization. Despite the overwhelming military power of the U.S., many Native Americans maintained their autonomy and power for significant periods, effectively negotiating and resisting the encroachment on their lands through various means. Throughout the nineteenth century, U.S. colonization efforts escalated, with many advocating for expansion as part of the nation's destiny.

Frontier Thesis by Jackson Turner

In the 1890s, as conflicts with Native Americans were declared officially over and the United States completed its territorial expansion, Frederick Jackson Turner presented his Frontier Thesis. According to Turner, the experience of westward expansion was fundamental to shaping the American character, instilling values such as individualism, democracy, and self-reliance. He believed that the frontier was essential in defining the American identity, as it represented not just the geographic limits of the nation but also the ideological boundaries of American democracy and cultural development. Turner’s thesis would later fuel continued interest in American imperialism and the acquisition of overseas territories.

Settler Colonialism

Settler colonialism is identified as a specific form of imperialism where the primary aim is the replacement of Indigenous populations with settler communities. It fundamentally altered the demographic, cultural, and economic landscapes of North America. European colonizers viewed Native Americans not as coexisting societies but as obstacles to progress. The consequences of this settler colonialism were catastrophic, as it led to the destruction of many Indigenous nations and cultures, with estimates indicating that diseases introduced by Europeans caused 70-90% mortality rates among Native American populations from epidemics like smallpox, influenza, and measles.

Methods of U.S. Settler Colonialism

The U.S. government employed several key methods to acquire and settle North American territory:

1. War and Violence: Armed conflict was a primary tactic, where the U.S. military engaged in numerous wars against Native American tribes. This included direct military confrontations and campaigns that targeted both combatants and civilian populations, leading to significant loss of life and displacement among Indigenous communities.

2. Treaties and Violations: The U.S. government often forced treaties upon Indigenous nations, agreeing to recognize land rights in exchange for payments or other lands. However, these treaties were frequently broken or violated, with white settlers often ignoring them entirely, leading to further dispossession of Native lands.

3. Indian Removal: An official policy during the early nineteenth century, this involved forcibly relocating Native American nations from their ancestral lands to designated reservations, often resulting in traumatic journeys known as the Trail of Tears. This policy disproportionately affected tribes in the southeastern U.S., where relocation led to immense suffering and death.

4. Government Land Distribution: The federal government promoted land distribution to white settlers through acts like the Homestead Act, which encouraged settlement in the West by offering lands at very low prices. This facilitated the establishment of plantations and railroads, further embedding the colonial economy.

Justifications for Settler Colonialism

Various justifications emerged to rationalize the dispossession of Native peoples and the expansionist policies of the U.S. government:

• Manifest Destiny: A widely held belief that Americans were ordained by God to expand across the continent, asserting that this expansion was a moral duty.

• White Supremacy: Racial ideologies that promoted the idea of white superiority over Native Americans and other peoples, framing colonization as a benevolent act of civilizing the so-called ‘savage’ populations.

• Economic Growth: Colonization was often justified in economic terms, asserting that territorial acquisition would lead to increased national wealth and power, benefiting the economy through agricultural expansion and resource extraction.

Native American Resistance

Despite the overwhelming violence and oppression, Native Americans employed various strategies to resist U.S. settler colonialism, including:

• Forming alliances with other tribes to strengthen political and military resistance against encroaching settlers.

• Engaging in legal battles and appealing to the U.S. courts to retain their lands and rights, with some tribes seeking recognition and protection of their treaty rights.

• Armed conflict, with numerous tribes engaging in warfare against American forces in defense of their territories during events such as the Indian Wars.

Ongoing Impacts

The legacy of settler colonialism continues to impact Native American societies, manifesting in high rates of poverty, mental health issues, and environmental degradation due to industrial activities on or near reservations. Treaty violations persist, as Native nations continue to seek justice and recognition for their rights and unfulfilled agreements. Historical narratives around U.S. expansion remain contested, with contemporary debates concerning the interpretation of American history and the ongoing struggles of Native peoples.

The historical trajectory of U.S. territorial conquest highlights the complexities and conflicts inherent in settler colonialism, illustrating the endurance of Indigenous communities against dispossession and the lasting consequences of colonial practices that continue to reverberate today. Historical figures and narratives are reassessing the context of U.S. expansionism, further advocating for the sovereignty and rights of Native American tribes in contemporary society.

Cuba’s War for Independence from Spain

Although often referred to as the Spanish-American War, it is crucial to recognize that Cubans, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans were also fighting Spain during this time. The Cuban War for Independence began in February 1895 and was characterized by leaders like José Martí advocating for a Cuba independent of colonial rule.

• The Cuban War for Independence: After earlier failed attempts, this war aimed to liberate Cuba from Spanish control and was fueled by the desire to target Spain’s sugar industry for economic disruption.

General Máximo Gómez emphasized the necessity of destroying the sugar resources to defeat the Spanish forces, representing the larger goal to liberate the island.

The U.S. Involvement in Cuba's War

The U.S. had a complex relationship with Cuba even before the revolution began, driven by historical desires from leaders like Thomas Jefferson to acquire the island. By 1894, the U.S. had extensive economic ties to Cuba, particularly in the sugar industry, and this connection influenced sentiments and actions as Cubans sought independence.

As Cuba’s war escalated, U.S. sentiment shifted from sympathy to calls for intervention, with many Americans reacting particularly to Spanish atrocities, including reconcentration camps set up by Spanish General Valeriano Weyler.

• Mobilizing Public Sentiment: The U.S. public became increasingly engaged, with many expressing support for Cuban independence and calling for military aid. Media outlets sensationalized the events, leading to a rallying effect toward intervention.

The Sinking of the U.S.S. Maine

On February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine exploded in Havana harbor, killing 266 servicemen. The incident prompted imperialists to call for war, framing it as a Spanish treachery.

• Public Reaction: While President McKinley urged a cautious approach and initiated an investigation, popular sentiment quickly swayed toward blaming Spain due to sensationalist reporting from the press, known as yellow journalism. This ultimately set the stage for war declarations.

• The Role of Yellow Journalism: Sensationalist media greatly influenced public perception and sentiment leading into the war, emphasizing Spanish brutality and rallying support for military action.

Treaty of Paris and Military Government

The Treaty of Paris was negotiated without representatives from Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Philippines, highlighting the unilateral approach of the U.S. in affirming control over new territories. The U.S. military governed Cuba from 1898 to 1902, despite Cubans' hopes for true independence.

Part 2

Introduction

The election of Republican William McKinley as president in 1896 was a pivotal moment in the history of U.S. imperialism, as the presidency plays a significant role in shaping foreign policy. Unlike his predecessor, Democrat Grover Cleveland, who declined to annex Hawai‘i in 1893 and openly opposed the concept of further colonial expansion, McKinley campaigned vigorously for both the annexation of Hawai‘i and a robust policy of global imperialism. This marked a decisive shift towards a more assertive and interventionist American foreign policy that would seek to expand the nation’s influence beyond its borders.

Part II Definitions

• Sovereignty: The right and authority of a nation to govern itself without interference from external forces, a fundamental concept in international law and relations that plays a crucial role in discussions of colonialism and imperialism.

• Revolutionaries: Individuals who participate in revolutionary activities with the aim of achieving independence from an oppressive regime or colonial power, aspiring to establish new governance that reflects the will of the people.

• Diplomacy: The art and practice of managing international relations and conducting negotiations between nation-states, crucial for maintaining peace and formulating foreign policy.

• Military Occupation: A situation where foreign military forces occupy a territory to control its affairs, often established after an armed conflict, without the formal establishment of a colony.

The War of 1898

• Military Campaigns: U.S. forces enjoyed swift successes in battles, including in Santiago, making the campaign successful by summer 1898. Culminating in the Treaty of Paris in December 1898, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States.

The war began with naval clashes pre-emptively initiated in the Philippines, where U.S. forces decimated Spanish naval power. The United States quickly expanded operations to seize control in both the Philippines and Cuba, achieving military victories with the assistance of local revolutionaries.

Prominent imperialist figures, such as Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, expressed the prevailing mindset of the time, claiming that the "great democracy is moving onward to its great destiny," underscoring the expansionist fervor that characterized the era. Shortly after McKinley’s inauguration, the United States engaged in the War of 1898 against Spain, ultimately securing a rapid military victory that lasted less than three months.

During the War of 1898, President McKinley directed the U.S. military to exert control over Spain’s colonial territories, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Additionally, McKinley successfully persuaded Congress to annex Hawai‘i during the conflict, fulfilling the ambitions of imperialists who sought to expand U.S. territories and influence across the globe. The acquisition of these overseas territories indicated a new era of American imperialism, characterized by aggressive colonization and resource extraction from these regions.

In the following sections of this note, the motivations behind the United States' war against Spain in 1898 will be explored, focusing on how the war culminated in the acquisition of Spanish territories in both the Caribbean and Pacific. The contrasting views of imperialists who justified territorial expansion and anti-imperialists who opposed it will be discussed, alongside the ramifications of the Philippine-American War, which emerged from these conflicts and significantly impacted American perceptions of imperialism.

Experiences During the War

As the war progressed, many participants hoped for independence and supported the U.S. efforts, but were met with disappointment as McKinley imposed military control over the territories rather than acknowledging their sovereignty. Filipinos, Cubans, and Puerto Ricans actively participated in fighting but were often discriminated against.

• Post-War Realizations: Post-conflict, as U.S. military presence extended, revolutionary leaders became concerned about American intentions, signaling a troubling new chapter for independence aspirations.

Cuba’s War for Independence from Spain

While the War of 1898 is frequently referred to as the Spanish-American War, this terminology fails to acknowledge the critical involvement of Cubans, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans who also fought against Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban War for Independence, spearheaded by leaders like José Martí, aimed to liberate Cuba from centuries of Spanish dominion, emphasizing principles of racial equality and national unity among a diverse population of white, mixed-race, and Black Cubans.

The Spanish response to the struggle for Cuban independence was brutal, exemplified by the introduction of the reconcentrado policy, initiated by General Valeriano Weyler. This policy forcibly relocated rural Cubans into concentration camps to undermine support for the revolutionaries. The appalling conditions in these camps led to widespread disease, starvation, and suffering, ultimately resulting in the deaths of approximately 170,000 Cubans—about 10 percent of the population. These horrific circumstances drew significant sympathy from the American public and spurred calls for U.S. intervention in the Cuban conflict.

Amid mounting pressures, American economic interests in Cuba, particularly within the lucrative sugar industry, intensified imperialist aspirations for annexation. The explosion of the U.S.S. Maine in Havana Harbor became a catalyst for American intervention, with sensationalist media, known as yellow journalism, fueling public outrage and pushing for war with Spain. Prominent newspaper owners, including William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, employed inflammatory headlines and exaggerated accounts of Spanish atrocities to rally public sentiment, ultimately swaying opinion toward military intervention.

The War of 1898

The conflict formally began with naval engagement not in Cuba, but in the Philippines, where U.S. forces aimed to counter Spanish naval power and secure key territories in the Pacific. The war quickly escalated, with the United States launching campaigns that led to significant victories against Spain in both the Philippines and Cuba. The overarching narrative of this conflict was entwined with notions of manhood, heroism, and national pride, as many politicians and citizens viewed the call to war as an expression of American courage and strength.

Among the significant political maneuvers leading up to the conflict was McKinley’s insistence on a declaration of war that avoided recognizing Cuban independence. This approach culminated in the passage of the Teller Amendment, which declared U.S. intentions to leave governance to the Cuban people rather than annex the island.

As the war unfolded, U.S. forces achieved swift military victories, solidifying control over Spanish territories and culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Paris. In this treaty, Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States and accepted a payment of $20 million for the Philippines, while formally relinquishing sovereignty over Cuba. Despite these provisions, the U.S. established military governance over Cuba until 1902, leading to a sense of betrayal among Cuban leaders who had fought for independence.

The Philippine-American War

Following the conclusion of the War of 1898, efforts toward Filipino independence surged, leading to the Philippine-American War characterized by fierce resistance against U.S. efforts to establish colonial control. This conflict mirrored past U.S. wars against Native Americans, showcasing similar tactics of violence and oppression, drawing parallels between colonial practices in both contexts. Many Filipinos, who had initially allied with U.S. forces against Spanish rule, felt deceived by the new imperial power’s intentions and tactics.

The Philippine-American War emerged from the U.S. decision to reinforce its claims to the islands following the Treaty of Paris. Despite Filipino declarations of independence, President McKinley ordered the military to impose American governance over the Philippines. Clashes between U.S. forces and Filipino independence fighters quickly escalated into a full-scale war, with U.S. military tactics often resorting to brutal measures that included the targeting of noncombatants, destruction of livelihoods, and forcibly relocating populations to prevent support for the independence movement.

In a reflection of past colonial tactics against Native Americans, U.S. military officials employed total war strategies in the Philippines that resulted in significant civilian casualties and suffering. Estimates suggest that around 50,000 Filipino soldiers died in the conflict, with civilian deaths potentially exceeding 200,000 amidst the violence, malnutrition, and disease; these figures illustrate the harsh realities of imperialism during this era. The actions of U.S. troops contributed to a growing disillusionment with imperialist ambitions back home as reports of these tactics began to surface in the American press, raising questions about the morality of U.S. expansionist policies.

Ultimately, the Philippine-American War transformed public perception of American imperialism, leading many to question the ethics and consequences of such endeavors abroad. The war illustrated the complexities of colonial rule and the contradictions inherent in the ideals of freedom and democracy that the United States professed to uphold, while simultaneously imposing imperial governance in foreign lands. Consequently, the lessons from this period continue to shape ongoing discussions about American foreign policy and its legacy of imperialism into the present day.

Hawaii's Annexation

Hawai‘i was annexed amid the war, despite Native Hawaiian protests against U.S. actions which violated their sovereignty. Imperialists justified the annexation arguing it was essential for U.S. security and power.

Conclusion

In summary, the transitions from the War of 1898 to the Philippine-American War represent significant chapters in the development of U.S. imperialism. The motivations, actions, and consequences of these conflicts highlight the interplay between national interest, foreign policy, and the realities of colonialism, as various groups navigated the complexities of their aspirations for independence and self-governance in the face of American expansionism. As the United States asserted its presence on the global stage, the legacies of these conflicts continue to inform contemporary discourse on imperialism and the rights of colonized peoples.

Conclusion

The historical trajectory following the War of 1898 illustrates the expansion of U.S. imperialism under McKinley as it emphasized control over earlier territories. While some Americans supported this new imperial push, significant opposition emerged, especially as war revealed the human costs and ethical complexities of global colonial expansion. The Philippine-American War further exemplified these dilemmas, raising questions about American identity and the treatment of colonized peoples, yet it did not significantly deter imperial ambitions as they adapted moving forward.

Part 3

The United States' Colonial Empire

• The US established its colonial empire in the Caribbean and Pacific, governing it through a mix of political, economic, and military power

• The inhabitants of the colonies did not receive the same constitutional rights, protections, and form of government as previous US territories

Imperialism with and without colonies

• The US established two strands of imperial policy: imperialism with colonies and imperialism without colonies

• Imperialism without colonies involved control through political, economic, and military power, without direct colonial rule

• This dual approach has existed in some form since the early twentieth century

The Insular Cases

• A series of Supreme Court decisions in 1901, determining the constitutional status of the colonies

• Congress did not have to extend constitutional rights and protections to the inhabitants of the colonies

• Especially Downes v. Bidwell, established the Incorporation Doctrine which allowed the US to rule overseas colonies as "unincorporated territories" without guaranteed full constitutional rights and protections or “incorporated” with full constitutional rights and protections, and added to the Union

• Hawai'i: became an "incorporated territory" due to its white population's power, but even then, white settler elites retained political power, and Native Hawaiians, Chinese, and Japanese residents were excluded from powerful positions.

Control and governance of the colonies

• The U.S. Navy was put in charge of Guam and American Samoa, with U.S. naval commanders having total control over the islands and governing them with little input from the local communities.

• The Bureau of Insular Affairs (BIA) controlled the colonies’ budgets, tax systems, and economic programs, as well as creating and overseeing local village, town, and provincial governments, and directing all major infrastructure projects.

• The BIA had ultimate authority over the islands and ruled them as colonial possessions—with limited oversight from Congress.

• The Indigenous populations of these islands did not receive U.S. citizenship or full constitutional rights and protections.

Economic benefits of U.S. colonial rule

• U.S. economic policies in its colonies mostly focused on expanding American investment in the islands and increasing imports from the islands to the mainland United States

Hawai‘i

• Five major sugar and pineapple corporations (known as the “Big Five”) dominated the Hawaiian economy

• The territorial government created policies that allowed the Big Five to expand their landholdings, dominate industries, and control their low-paid workforce

Puerto Rico

• American sugar corporations were the primary beneficiaries of U.S. colonial rule in Puerto Rico

• Policies were created specifically to encourage American investment in the sugar industry and protect the property and privileges of U.S. corporations and citizens

Guam and American Samoa

• The U.S. Navy organized the entire economies of Guam and American Samoa around servicing the needs of the military

The Philippines

• The U.S. government worked directly with American corporations to ensure they profited from the development of the colony’s economy

• Congress passed the 1905 Cooper Law, which guaranteed a certain percentage of profits to U.S. corporations that constructed public works projects in the Philippines

Maintaining control of colonies

• The U.S. constructed military bases on all its island colonies to extend American naval power and suppress resistance

• The U.S. used "divide and rule" strategies to increase divisions within colonial societies, such as providing benefits to wealthy supporters and increasing racial and religious divisions

Christian Missionaries in the Philippines

• The U.S. colonial government and white missionaries tried to "Americanize" and "uplift" Filipinos and Puerto Ricans, but they faced resistance. The U.S. promised self-rule or independence in the future, but many locals demanded immediate independence.

Resistance to American rule

• Many peoples of U.S. colonies resisted American rule

Resistance to U.S. colonial rule

• Public criticism of U.S. colonial rule was one primary form of resistance

• Creating or joining “nationalist” political parties that called for political rights, self-rule, or independence was another primary form of resistance

• Everyday acts were part of a broader resistance movement to U.S. colonialism

Different paths in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries

• Hawai‘i was admitted as the fiftieth U.S. state in 1959

• The Philippines finally achieved self-rule in 1935 and, in 1946, full independence from the United States

• Guam and American Samoa became unincorporated U.S. territories with limited self-government

• Puerto Rico remains an unincorporated U.S. territory with limited self-government

U.S. Imperial Interventions

• The U.S. created a colonial empire in the Caribbean and Pacific, but also pursued other forms of imperial expansion

• U.S. used political, economic, and military power to control less powerful countries without permanent colonial rule

• Examples: U.S. military occupied Cuba (1898-1902), established a protectorate over Cuba, joined invasion and occupation of China (1900), engineered Panama's independence (1903) for canal construction

Cuba: U.S. Military Occupation (1898-1902)

• U.S. imperialists wanted to annex Cuba as a colony, but couldn't because of the Teller Amendment and strong Cuban independence movement

• Teller Amendment: U.S. had no intentions to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over Cuba

• U.S. military occupied Cuba after the War of 1898, but couldn't colonize it due to Cuban independence movement

Platt Amendment

• Restricted Cuban sovereignty and defined U.S.-Cuba relations

• The Platt Amendment limited Cuba's right to sign treaties, placed restrictions on foreign policy and domestic budget, gave away territory for U.S. military bases, and gave the U.S. the right to intervene in the future

The U.S. protectorate in Cuba

• The U.S. sent troops to defend American businesses, restore order, and reorganize the Cuban government

• American economic power on the island was nearly unlimited

• U.S. businesses dominated industries

• This economic relationship hurt Cuba’s small farmers, workers, and entrepreneurs

• The U.S. did not permanently rule Cuba as a colony, but Cuba did become part of the U.S. empire

Theodore Roosevelt and U.S. imperialism

• Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most influential American imperialists of his era

• He denounced all criticism of the U.S. war in the Philippines as unmanly

• He intervened militarily in several countries in the Caribbean and Central America

The U.S. and the invasion of China in 1900

• The U.S. joined other imperial powers in invading China in 1900

The Boxer Rebellion

• Chinese nationalists, called Boxers, resisted foreign influence in the 1890s

• Boxers attacked foreigners and Chinese Christians, killing several hundred foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians

• The US and seven other imperial powers invaded China to protect their citizens and special rights

• The Boxer Protocol forced China to pay reparations, keep foreign troops, and retain special rights

Open Door Notes

• The Open Door Notes called for an “open door” policy in China, allowing all countries equal trade access

• The US wanted to control international trade in China, ignoring China's sovereignty

• John Hay, U.S. Secretary of State, sent the Open Door Note in 1899 for three reasons: to weaken Chinese government's control of its economy, prevent division of China by imperial powers, and avoid warfare over spheres of influence

• Hay did not consult the Chinese government, as he believed their views were insignificant

• The other imperial powers initially ignored the notes, as the U.S. did not have a sphere of influence in China

• The Boxer Rebellion changed the situation, and Hay claimed success in preventing China's division into colonies

Implications

• The U.S. demonstrated a means of expanding imperial power without colonizing other countries

• The U.S. used political power to control Chinese affairs, violating China's national sovereignty

• The Panama Canal facilitated trade with China and other Pacific nations, benefiting American corporations and the colonial empire in the Pacific

Building the Panama Canal

• Roosevelt wanted to build a canal in Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

• Nicaragua and Panama were considered ideal locations for the canal project

• The U.S. began negotiations with Colombia to purchase territorial rights in Panama, but the Colombian government rejected the offer

• Roosevelt intervened in Panama in 1903 and helped them declare independence from Colombia

• The U.S. quickly signed a treaty with the new Panamanian government to build the canal

The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903

• The U.S. received complete and permanent control of the Canal Zone and the right to construct and operate a canal

• The U.S. agreed to pay Panama $10 million (plus an annual sum of $250,000) and defend Panama’s independence

Criticism of Roosevelt's actions

• Anti-imperialists, criticized Roosevelt for the U.S. intervention in Panama

• The U.S. recognized the right of the United States to control the Canal Zone and intervene in Panamanian affairs

• The U.S. empire, even though it did not become a U.S. colony, was symbolized by the construction of the Panama Canal.

Construction of the Panama Canal

• It led to increased U.S. trade, cheaper global shipping costs, and higher U.S. trade profits

• It helped link the U.S. mainland to its empire of colonies and protectorates

Race and the Workers Who Built the Panama Canal

• White workers received high wages, paid time off, and free high-quality housing and medical care

• Black workers were denied all the best jobs, received much lower wages, lived in unsanitary housing, and suffered from far higher rates of exposure to disease

Interventions, Occupations, and Protectorates: 1904-1915

• The U.S. intervened in the affairs of the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Nicaragua, Panama, Honduras, Mexico, and Haiti between 1904 and 1915

• These interventions allowed the U.S. to expand its imperial power without acquiring additional colonies

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• It was a U.S. policy that justified intervention in Latin America

• It stated that the U.S. would intervene in Latin America to stabilize the region and prevent European intervention

• Monroe Doctrine issued by President James Monroe in 1823 declared US would not intervene in European affairs

• Roosevelt Corollary added to Monroe Doctrine in 1904, declaring US had right to exercise "international police power" in Americas

• Turned Monroe Doctrine from non-interventionist to interventionist policy

Roosevelt's "Big Stick Diplomacy"

• Used threats of military force as a key part of diplomacy with foreign countries

• Example: Sending of the Great White Fleet in 1907 to demonstrate U.S. military power

Key takeaway: The Roosevelt Corollary was imperialist because it let the U.S. control Latin American and Caribbean nations with military power, using bigoted language and justifying it as "civilizing" them. This led to U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic in 1904-1905, where the U.S. took over their debt and made them a protectorate, controlling their revenue and intervening in their affairs.

U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic

• The Dominican Republic was struggling to pay back $32 million in debts to European banks due to mismanagement and fraud by the Santo Domingo Improvement Company (SDIC)

• President Roosevelt invoked the Corollary and sent American troops to occupy the country to ensure repayment of the debt and "keep order"

• The U.S. government took over the Dominican debt and controlled tax revenues in the country, turning the Dominican Republic into a U.S. protectorate from 1906 to 1941

• This laid the foundation for President William Howard Taft's "dollar diplomacy" policy

Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy"

• Intervention in the Dominican Republic

• U.S. government partnered with U.S. financial institutions to give loans

• Countries had to accept U.S. financial experts to reorganize and manage budgets

• U.S. military would enforce loan repayments if necessary

Goals of "Dollar Diplomacy"

• Improve U.S. economic relationships

• Keep European empires out

• High profits for U.S. financial institutions

• Modernize and stabilize economies

• Minimize U.S. military interventions

Reality of "Dollar Diplomacy"

• Imperial policy using political and economic power

• Forced bank loans on countries

• U.S. control over financial affairs

• Extract profits for U.S. corporations

• Racial superiority complex among U.S. officials

• U.S. military interventions despite Taft's hopes

U.S. intervention in Nicaragua (1909-1912)

• President José Santos Zelaya's reforms and nationalism

• Increased taxes on foreign corporations

• Taft administration viewed Nicaragua as a target

• Zelaya's resignation and the end of the revolution

US intervention in Mexico (1914) and Haiti (1915)

• Woodrow Wilson, unlike Taft, publicly criticized "dollar diplomacy" and promised to treat Latin American nations on "terms of equality and honor"

• He also promised to promote democracy and self-determination, and not to use force to seize control of additional territory

• However, Wilson sent U.S. troops to intervene in Mexico (1914) and Haiti (1915), along with other countries

• Wilson claimed his interventions were motivated by a higher moral purpose and dedication to democracy, but the reasons were nearly identical to those of his predecessors

Corporate Imperialism

• U.S.-based fruit corporations gained immense wealth and power in Central America

• They owned so much land, dominated industries, and produced so much wealth that they controlled the economies of Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras

• These corporations exerted influence and control over various aspects of their governments, known as "corporate imperialism"

• The U.S. government welcomed their influence, believing it played a similar role to that of American officials in U.S. colonies

US intervention in Nicaragua

• Adolfo Diaz, a Nicaraguan executive of a U.S.-owned mining corporation, replaced President Zelaya

• Diaz accepted U.S. loans, let U.S. financial institutions control Nicaragua’s banking and railroad systems, and extended special rights and privileges to U.S.-owned corporations

• U.S. troops occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1925, and then returned for another military occupation from 1926 to 1939

US intervention in Honduras

• Sam Zemurray, an American banana corporation executive, played a key role in leading a revolution to install a president in 1912

• U.S. troops were sent to Honduras in 1911-1912 to defend U.S. property and "keep order"

U.S. Imperialism in Latin America (1890-1915)

• President Wilson sent U.S. troops to occupy Mexico (1914), Haiti (1915), the Dominican Republic (1916), Cuba (1917), and Panama (1918)

• These interventions aimed to establish "order," control finances, and keep European powers out

• U.S. occupation of Haiti led to forced labor, violence, and a nineteen-year protectorate

Conclusion The United States has a history of imperialism, which includes resisting U.S. government policies, fighting for self-rule, colonial expansion, and military interventions. These actions were motivated by a belief in white American superiority, a sense of destiny, and a desire to expand U.S. economic power.