Exam 2

Value: Qualities or beliefs that are viewed as desirable or important

Values are affected by perception: The state of being aware

Or the process of becoming aware of something through the senses

 a biological construct

 perception acts as a filter

Values clarification: The process of discovering what is personally worthwhile or desirable in life

Attitudes: A set of emotions, behavior, and belief toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. A tendency to respond positively (favorably) or negatively (unfavorably). Attitudes guide our attention and our behavior.

Prejudice: The word means “prejudgment.”

It generally refers to the application of a previously formed judgment to some person, object, or situation.

It can be favorable or unfavorable. 

Stereotype

Is an oversimplified, fixed attitude.

Achievement motivation: The learned motivation to be competent.

• Motivated to achieve mastery of challenging tasks

• –Depends also on the level of fear of failure.

• –Expectations
  are related to:

  • •History

  • •Perception

  • •Attributions

Motive: A need or emotion that causes a person to act.

Attribution: An explanation for one’s performance.

• Fundamental attribution error

Internal and external locus of control: Internal locus

• Attributes responsibility inside the self

External locus

• Attributes responsibility to focuses outside of self

Achievement motivation linked to locus of control

• How people attribute their performance

• Where people place responsibility for successes or failure

Learned-helpless orientation: Become passive and lose motivation when placed in situations where outcomes are unaffected by their behavior. Placed in environments or situations where one’s has no control. Can lead to depression.

Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.

The feeling of being in control.

The opposite of learned helplessness.

Personal Agency

• The realization that one’s actions cause outcomes

• Language & culture

Persistence

• high expectations for success; caring, supportive support; emphasize the learning process

Self-esteem:  The value one places on one’s identity. It incorporates many forms of self-knowledge and self-evaluative feelings.

Explain values, giving an example of each type: society, family, or personal values

• Societal

  • Equal justice for all

  • Compassion for those in need

  • Equality of opportunity

  • way of regarding, understanding, or interpreting something

  • sometimes society tells us what to pay attention to

• Family 

  • Outlook on life

  •  a way to view the world 

  • core of what family
      members do

  • the opinions they have

• Personal

  • Self-improvement

  • Truth

  • Love

  • Kindness

  • Achievement

  • Self-direction

Explain how cultural attitudes develop and how they change

• Cultural attitudes develop and change through a combination of historical, social, economic, and psychological factors.

Discuss the influences on achievement motivation, locus of control, and learned-helplessness

• Influences on Achievement Motivation, Locus of Control, and Learned Helplessness** These psychological concepts are shaped by a mix of personal, social, and environmental factors.

Discuss the influences on self-efficacy and self-esteem

• persistent failure or negative self-perception can lower both self-efficacy and self-esteem. Building self-efficacy and self-esteem requires supportive environments, positive reinforcement, and developing a growth mindset.

Self-regulation: the ability to control one’s impulses, behavior, and/or emotions until an appropriate time, place, or object is available for expression

Antisocial: anger. includes any behavior that harms other people, such as aggression, violence, and crime. 

Prosocial: includes any behavior that benefits other people, such as altruism, sharing, and cooperation. 

Aggression: any behavior intended to cause harm or injury to another person who is motivated to avoid such harm. It can be physical, verbal, or relational and may be driven by various factors, including frustration, social influences, or biological predispositions.

Altruism: Behavior that is kind, considerate, generous, and helpful to others.

Social cognitive theory: Influence includes

• Learning theory

• Information processing theory

Information processing: refers to the way humans perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve information, much like a computer processes data. It is a cognitive approach that examines how individuals take in sensory input, encode it into memory, and use it for decision-making and problem-solving

Sociocultural theory: Influenced by those around:

• Attitudes

• Values

• Behavior patterns 

• Social contagion

Ecological theory: a framework that examines human development and behavior in the context of the environment and the multiple interacting systems that influence an individual’s growth

Biological theory: Influence includes

• impulse control 

• frustration tolerance 

• activity level

Cognitive development theory: the process by which individuals acquire, organize, and use knowledge as they grow and mature. It focuses on how thinking, problem-solving, and understanding evolve over time. One of the most influential cognitive development theories is “Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development”, which outlines stages through which children progress as they develop their intellectual abilities

Morals: 

Morality: Morality involves

• Feeling

• Reasoning

• Behaving

Not only does children’s maturation influence their moral codes, but so do intelli­gence, motivation, the need for approval, self-control, and the particular situation.

• Jean Piaget

• Morality

•  “the understanding of and adherence to rules through one’s own volition.”

• Lawrence Kohlberg

• Morality

• “it has to be constructed as a consequence of social experiences.”

Kohlberg’s theory: six distinct stages, or perspectives, of moral development, which are associated with changes in the individual’s intellectual development; each perspec­tive is broader, taking into account more variables or aspects of a moral problem. The stages begin at about age 6 and continue to adulthood. It is important to note that chil­dren and adults sometimes operate at several different stages simultaneously.

Preconventional level:  Stage 1: obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment,   Stage 2: individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards. Actions are done with intent of helping themselves survive or feel better

Conventional level: Stage 3: interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval, Stage 4:authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order. Willing to give of themselves for the goodness of others.

Postconventional level: Stage 5: social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights, stage 6: universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles. Want to prevent harm to themselves and others; everyone is a person

Justice moral perspective: “draws attention to problems of inequality and oppression and holds up an ideal of reciprocity and equal respect.”

Car moral perspective: draws attention to problems of detachment or abandonment and holds up an ideal of attention and response to need.”

Gender role: Qualities individuals understand to characterize males and fe­males in their culture

Sex typing: Classification into gender roles based on biological sex

 Gender schema theory: How one comes to process information about oneself as a male or female by perceiving and interpreting gender-linked information like a male or female.

• This theory, proposes the combination of cognitive and social learning elements. 

• It suggests that children develop mental frameworks (schemas) about gender based on societal expectations, which influence how they process and interpret gender-related information.

Psychoanalytic theory:  this theory suggests that gender identity develops during early childhood through unconscious processes. Freud proposed that children resolve conflicts related to their same-sex parent (Oedipus/Electra complex), leading them to internalize gender roles.

Social cognitive theory: This theory emphasizes the role of observation, imitation, and reinforcement in shaping gender behavior

Family marriage: 

orientation - family into which one is born (names of those in your family). 

procreation - The family that develops when one marries and has children (maybe in few years)

Extended- Relatives of the nuclear family who are economically and emotionally dependent on each other. Some cultures place greater obligation to family than to self

Matriarchal- A family in which the mother has formal authority and dominance

Patriarchal- A family in which the father has formal authority and dominance

Egalitarian- A family in which both sides of the extended family are regarded as equal

Nuclear- Husband, wife, and their children

• Parents depend on each other

• Children depend on parents

Binuclear - is a family structure in which two separate households are formed after a divorce or separation, with each household typically involving one of the parents and their children. This type of family structure allows both parents to remain actively involved in the children's lives, even though they no longer live together

Socioeconomic status: an individual's or group's social and economic position within a society, which is typically determined by a combination of factors such as income, education, and occupation. SES is used to describe an individual's access to resources and opportunities, and it often plays a significant role in shaping their behavior, mental health, and overall well-being.

Ascribed status: a social position or identity that an individual is born into or assigned involuntarily, rather than one that is earned or chosen

Achieved status: a social position or identity that an individual attains through their own actions, efforts, choices, and achievements

Traditional society: refers to a type of social structure characterized by long-established customs, values, and practices that are passed down through generations. In traditional societies, social roles and behaviors are often rigidly defined, and there is a strong emphasis on maintaining social order, preserving cultural norms, and adhering to historical practices

Modern society: a social structure characterized by rapid technological advancements, industrialization, urbanization, and a shift toward individualism and social mobility. Unlike traditional societies, modern societies often prioritize innovation, change, and the questioning of established norms, allowing for more flexibility in roles, behaviors, and values.

Gemeinschaft: is a concept introduced by sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies to describe a type of social relationship characterized by close, personal bonds, mutual support, and a strong sense of community. The term is often translated as "community" and refers to social groups in which individuals are tied together by shared values, traditions, and emotional connections

Gesellshaft: is a term coined by sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies to describe a type of social relationship characterized by impersonal, formal, and contractual bonds, often found in larger, more urbanized, and industrialized societies.

Collectivism: is a cultural or psychological orientation that emphasizes the importance of the group over the individual. People who adopt a collectivist mindset prioritize group goals, family, community, and social harmony over personal desires or achievements. In psychology, collectivism is linked to behaviors such as cooperation, group cohesion, and the value of relationships. People in collectivist cultures may have a strong sense of duty and responsibility toward others, often sacrificing personal goals for the welfare of the group

Individualism: is a psychological and cultural orientation that emphasizes personal autonomy, independence, and self-expression. People who are individualistic focus on personal goals, achievements, and rights, and prioritize personal freedom over group interests. Psychologically, individualism encourages self-reliance, personal responsibility, and the development of unique personal identities. This orientation is often seen in societies where personal success, freedom of choice, and self-determination are highly valued

Norms: in psychology refer to the unwritten rules or expectations that govern behavior within a group or society. They are shared standards that dictate what is considered acceptable, appropriate, or expected in various situations. Norms can be explicit (formal laws and rules) or implicit (social customs, traditions). Psychologically, norms guide individuals in their interactions and help maintain social order, influencing behavior and social cohesion

Religion: refers to a system of beliefs, practices, and values related to the sacred, divine, or spiritual realm. It often involves rituals, moral codes, and community structures that guide individuals in their understanding of existence, purpose, and the nature of reality. Religiosity can influence psychological well-being, coping mechanisms, identity, and worldview. Religion can provide a sense of belonging, purpose, and meaning, but it can also be associated with stress or conflict, particularly when beliefs are challenged or when there are societal pressures related to religious expectations

Protestant ethic: as described by sociologist Max Weber, refers to a set of values associated with Protestant Christianity, particularly the emphasis on hard work, frugality, individual responsibility, and economic success as signs of personal virtue and salvation. Psychologically, this ethic promotes a strong work ethic and a belief that diligence and effort will lead to material success and personal fulfillment. The Protestant Ethic has been linked to the development of capitalism, where industriousness and individual achievement are highly valued

Stress: Stress affects emotional roles in families.

• High-conflict families create emotional strain on children.

• Family roles (peacemaker, scapegoat, caretaker) emerge from stress.

• Stress-related behaviors emerge as coping mechanisms.to maintain balance.

Empowerment: refers to the process of gaining control over one’s life, making informed decisions, and achieving greater autonomy and self-efficacy. Empowerment involves increasing one’s confidence, skills, and resources to take action, assert one's rights, and make choices that lead to positive outcomes. It can be applied to individuals or groups, especially in contexts where there is a history of disempowerment or marginalization