overview

• Governing is achieved directly through citizen participation and indirectly through institutions (e.g., political parties, interest groups, and mass media) that inform, organize, and mobilize support to influence government and politics, resulting in many venues for citizen influence on policy making.

• The principle of self-government is dependent on both citizen participation and the operation of the various linkage institutions that help citizens connect with the government. These institutions help people become a part of the policy-making process.

• Playing an important role in this process, the media report public opinion data and can sometimes influence the formation of that opinion as well.

  • The accuracy of public opinion data is dependent upon the scientific polling methods that are used, and the results of these opinion polls are often used as a means of political influence.

  • The role the media play in this process is at times criticized for the bias demonstrated in the format, context, and content of information distributed as well as the manner in which that bias impacts public understanding of political information. Social media poses both opportunities and challenges for democratic participation.

• Social movements, political parties, and interest groups also serve to connect the electorate with the government by influencing the manner in which people relate to and participate in its composition, functions, and policy-making agenda.

  • Various social movements develop in response to conditions perceived as negatively impacting specific groups of people; their political strategies are aimed at changing public policy in a way that benefits the adversely impacted group.

  • Political parties run campaigns in an attempt to win office and make policy consistent with their platform and goals.

  • Over time political parties respond to election results, campaign laws, and changes in the way information is disseminated to the public. Even though political parties are designed to connect the people with government, there are various barriers that interfere with this connection, even to the extent of preventing candidates who represent interests outside the two major parties from being elected. Finally, interest groups exist as a form of political participation for people with particular policy concerns.

    • While these groups exist for different causes, they are sometimes criticized for wielding a disproportionate impact on the policy-making process based on their organized pressure tactics and allocation of money for campaigns and lobbying.

• Like political parties and interest groups, elections connect citizens with government. The number of eligible voters has expanded over time based on various constitutional provisions, court rulings on voter access and campaign finance, and legislation.

  • The Fifteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty-Fourth, and Twenty-Sixth Amendments, each a response to a specific social/political concern, serve to eliminate political discrimination against people due to a citizen’s race, sex, age, and ability to pay a poll tax.

  • Voter turnout is impacted by the various provisions that states implement regarding voter requirements and qualifications that involve issues not addressed in those amendments.

    • Voter turnout varies widely from election to election, and political candidates have taken advantage of technology and campaign finance laws to communicate their platforms more effectively to the voting public.

  • The data regarding voter turnout in the United States provides a foundation for interesting analysis when compared to voter turnout in other democracies, and political scientists periodically study why voter turnout in the U.S. falls below that in other similar republics.

influences on political participation

*Big Idea #1: Factors associated with political ideology, efficacy, structural barriers, and demographics influence the nature and degree of political participation. *

models of voting behavior

• rational-choice voting: When a voter has examined an issue or candidate, evaluated campaign promises or platform points, and consciously decided to vote in the way that seems to benefit the voter

• prospective voting: Basing voting decisions on well-informed opinions and consideration of the future consequences of a given vote

• retrospective voting: A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask “what have you done for me lately”

• party-line voting/straight-ticket voting: A vote in which a substantial majority of members of a political party vote for those in their party

election governance

• In addition to the impact that demographics and political efficacy can have on voter choice and turnout, structural barriers and type of election also affect voter turnout in the U.S

key terms

• demographics: Characteristics of a population, including age, sex, and race. Often used to determine changes in the make-up of a population

• political efficacy: The belief that one’s political participation really matters-that one’s vote can actually make a difference

• electorate: All of the people entitled to vote in a given election

 voter choice

linkage institutions

• Linkage Institution: a channel through which people’s concerns become political issues on the government’s policy agenda

political parties: functions and impacts

• Parties have adapted to candidate-centered campaigns, and their role in nominating candidates has been weakened.

• Parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to various demographic coalitions.

• Parties use communication technology and voter-data management to disseminate, control, and clarify political messages and enhance outreach and mobilization efforts.

electoral terms

• critical election: Election that produces a sharp change in the existing pattern of party loyalties among groups of voters; electoral realignment persists through several elections

• regional realignment: When an area of the country undergoes a major shift in its electoral base and political agenda

• realignment: When a party undergoes a major shift in its electoral base and political agenda

• divided government: When different political parties control different branches of the federal government

critical elections

• Elections and political parties are related to major policy shifts or initiatives, occasionally leading to political realignments of voting constituencies.

third parties

• The incorporation of third-party agendas into platforms of major political parties serves as a barrier to third-party and independent candidate success.

political parties and interest groups