THE ULTIMATE APUSH VOCAB GUIDE
Native Americans – Indigenous peoples living in North America before European colonization.
Maize – Corn; a staple crop for Native American societies, especially in the Southwest.
Tenochtitlan – Capital city of the Aztec Empire, located in present-day Mexico City.
Aztecs – Mesoamerican empire known for advanced engineering and human sacrifice.
Mayans – Indigenous civilization in Central America known for writing, math, and astronomy.
Incas – South American empire in the Andes known for roads and terracing.
Pueblo – Native people of the Southwest known for adobe dwellings and farming.
Cahokia – Major Mississippian city with large mounds, located near present-day St. Louis.
Iroquois – Northeastern tribe known for forming a political confederacy.
Reasons for exploration – Included desire for gold, spread of Christianity, and glory.
Prince Henry the Navigator – Portuguese prince who promoted exploration of Africa.
Isabella and Ferdinand – Spanish monarchs who funded Columbus’s voyage in 1492.
Christopher Columbus – Explorer who reached the Americas in 1492 under Spain.
Columbian Exchange – Exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between Old and New Worlds.
Feudalism – Medieval European political system based on land ownership and loyalty.
Capitalism – Economic system based on private ownership and profit.
Middle Passage – Brutal journey enslaved Africans took across the Atlantic to the Americas.
Mercantilism – Economic policy focused on maximizing exports and accumulating wealth.
Joint-Stock Companies – Businesses that funded colonies by pooling investor money.
African Slave Trade – Forced migration of Africans to the Americas as slave labor.
Social Darwinism – Belief that some races were naturally superior, used to justify imperialism.
Encomienda System – Spanish labor system that forced Native Americans to work for colonists.
Requerimiento – Spanish document demanding Native submission or justifying conquest.
Caste System – Racial and social hierarchy imposed in Spanish colonies.
Mission System – Spanish effort to convert Native Americans to Christianity.
Hegemony – Dominance of one group over others, especially culturally or politically.
Pueblo Revolt – 1680 Native uprising that expelled the Spanish from New Mexico for 12 years.
Samuel De Champlain – French explorer who founded Quebec in 1608.
Henry Hudson – English explorer who searched for a Northwest Passage and explored New York.
Enclosure Movement – Privatization of land in England, pushing people to the colonies.
Chesapeake Colonies – Maryland and Virginia, known for tobacco farming and slavery.
Jamestown – First permanent English colony in America, founded in 1607.
John Rolfe – Introduced tobacco cultivation in Virginia and married Pocahontas.
Cash Crops – Crops like tobacco and cotton grown for profit rather than food.
Indentured Servants – Laborers who worked for a set time in exchange for passage to America.
New England Colonies – Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire; Puritan influence.
Middle Colonies – New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware; diverse and tolerant.
William Penn – Quaker who founded Pennsylvania as a religious refuge.
Bacon’s Rebellion – 1676 rebellion by poor farmers against Virginia’s elite and Native policy.
House of Burgesses – First representative government in colonial America, Virginia.
Mayflower Compact – 1620 agreement for self-government made by Pilgrims.
The Triangular Trade – Trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas involving slaves, goods, and raw materials.
Slave Trade Act – British law to regulate and eventually end slave trading.
Navigation Acts – British laws that restricted colonial trade to benefit England.
Metacom’s War – 1675 Native uprising against New England settlers; also called King Philip’s War.
Stono Rebellion – 1739 slave revolt in South Carolina, leading to stricter slave laws.
The Enlightenment – Intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individual rights.
John Locke – Enlightenment thinker who argued for natural rights and government by consent.
Natural Rights – Life, liberty, and property—rights all people are born with.
Social Contract – Idea that government is based on an agreement between rulers and the people.
The Great Awakening – Religious revival in the 1730s–40s emphasizing emotional preaching and individual faith.
New Light Clergy – Ministers who supported the Great Awakening's new style of preaching.
Pietism – A Christian movement focused on personal faith and devotion.
Jonathan Edwards – Preacher of the Great Awakening, known for "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."
George Whitefield – Evangelist who helped spread the Great Awakening with emotional sermons.
Anglicanization – Process of colonies adopting English customs, culture, and political structures.
Impressment – British practice of forcing American sailors into the Royal Navy.
The French and Indian War – Conflict between Britain and France in North America (1754–1763), part of the Seven Years' War.
The Seven Years’ War – Global conflict between European powers, 1756–1763.
Ohio River Valley – Area of conflict between British and French leading up to the French and Indian War.
George Washington – Young officer in the French and Indian War; later first U.S. president.
Fort Duquesne – French fort in Ohio territory; contested by British colonists.
The Albany Congress – 1754 meeting of colonies to discuss defense and alliance with Iroquois.
Albany Plan of Union – Benjamin Franklin’s failed plan to unite the colonies for defense.
The Peace of Paris – 1763 treaty ending the French and Indian War; France lost most of its North American territory.
Proclamation Line of 1763 – British law banning settlement west of the Appalachians to appease Native Americans.
Salutary Neglect – British policy of loosely enforcing colonial laws, fostering independence.
George Grenville – British PM who enforced stricter tax laws on colonies after the war.
Quartering Act of 1765 – Required colonists to house and feed British troops.
Sugar Act – 1764 British tax on sugar and molasses; aimed to reduce smuggling.
The Stamp Act of 1765 – First direct tax on the colonies; required tax stamps on paper goods.
Currency Act – Banned colonies from printing their own paper money.
Virtual Representation – British argument that Parliament represented all subjects, even without direct colonial representation.
Sons of Liberty, Daughters of Liberty, Vox Populi – Colonial groups that protested British policies.
The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 – Colonies united to protest the Stamp Act.
Townshend Acts 1767 – Taxed imports like glass, paint, paper; led to boycotts.
The Boston Massacre of 1770 – British soldiers killed 5 colonists during a protest.
John Adams – Defended British soldiers in the Boston Massacre; later second U.S. president.
The Boston Tea Party of 1773 – Protest in which colonists dumped tea into Boston Harbor.
Tea Act – Gave British East India Company monopoly on tea sales in America.
Coercive Acts of 1774 – British punishment for Boston Tea Party; closed harbor and limited self-government.
Intolerable Acts – Colonists’ name for the Coercive Acts.
Quartering Act – Reissued act forcing colonists to house British troops.
Continental Congress 1774 – First meeting of colonial representatives to respond to British policies.
Baron de Montesquieu – Enlightenment thinker who supported separation of powers.
Common Sense by Thomas Paine – Pamphlet urging independence from Britain.
Second Continental Congress of 1776 – Declared independence and organized the Continental Army.
Loyalists – Colonists loyal to Britain during the American Revolution.
Battle of Saratoga – Turning point of the Revolution; led to French alliance.
The Battle of Yorktown – Final battle of the Revolution; British surrendered in 1781.
Paris Peace Treaty 1783 – Ended the Revolutionary War and recognized American independence.
Slavery – System of forced labor, central to Southern economy and politics.
Suffrage – The right to vote; debated over who should have access to it post-Revolution.
Republican Motherhood – Belief women should raise children with republican values.
French Revolution, Haitian Revolution, and Latin American Revolutions – Inspired by American Revolution; challenged monarchy and colonialism.
Articles of Confederation – First U.S. constitution; weak federal government.
Westward Migration – Movement of settlers into frontier territories after the Revolution.
Manifest Destiny – Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – Law creating process for new states in the Northwest Territory.
Shay’s Rebellion – 1786 revolt by farmers against debt and taxes; exposed weakness of Articles.
Constitutional Convention 1787 – Meeting to draft a new U.S. Constitution.
Virginia Plan – Representation based on population.
New Jersey Plan – Equal representation for all states.
The Great Compromise – Created a bicameral legislature.
Three-Fifths Compromise – Counted slaves as 3/5 of a person for representation.
Federalists – Supported the Constitution and strong government.
Federalist Papers – Essays defending the Constitution.
Anti-Federalists – Opposed the Constitution; wanted states’ rights.
Bill of Rights – First ten amendments protecting individual freedoms.
Federalism – Division of power between states and national government.
Supremacy Clause – Constitution is the highest law.
Enumerated Powers of Congress – Listed powers given to Congress.
10th Amendment – Powers not given to the federal government go to the states.
Checks and Balances – Each branch limits the others.
Treasury, War, State, and Justice – Original executive departments.
Alexander Hamilton – Federalist; created financial system.
National Bank – Bank to hold government funds and issue currency.
Elastic Clause – Congress can pass necessary and proper laws.
Proclamation of Neutrality 1793 – U.S. remained neutral in foreign wars.
Jay’s Treaty – Treaty with Britain to resolve lingering issues.
Pinckney Treaty 1795 – U.S. gained access to the Mississippi River.
Battle of Fallen Timbers – U.S. defeat of Native resistance in Northwest.
Whiskey Rebellion – Uprising over whiskey tax.
Two-Party System – Emergence of Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.
Democratic Republicans – Favored agriculture and states' rights.
Washington’s Farewell Address – Warned against factions and foreign alliances.
XYZ Affair – French scandal involving bribery.
Alien Act – Allowed deportation of immigrants.
Sedition Act – Made criticism of the government illegal.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions – Argued states could nullify federal laws.
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom – Law for separation of church and state.
Revolution of 1800 – Peaceful transition of power to Jefferson.
Louisiana Purchase – Doubled U.S. size; bought from France.
Jeffersonian – Philosophy of limited government and agrarianism.
Strict Constructionism – Belief in narrow interpretation of Constitution.
Corps of Discovery – Lewis and Clark’s exploration of the West.
John Marshall – Chief Justice who expanded federal power.
Marbury v. Madison – Established judicial review.
Judiciary Act – Set up a federal court system.
Midnight Judges – Last-minute judicial appointments by Adams.
Judicial Review – Courts can declare laws unconstitutional.
McCulloch v. Maryland – Strengthened federal power; upheld national bank.
War of 1812 – Conflict with Britain over trade and impressment.
James Madison – President during the War of 1812.
Warhawks – Pro-war Congressmen like Henry Clay.
Hartford Convention – Federalist meeting opposing war; seen as disloyal.
Henry Clay – Leader of American System and Compromise of 1850.
American System – Economic plan: bank, tariffs, infrastructure.
Missouri Compromise (1820) – Balanced free and slave states.
36°30′ Line – No slavery north of this line (except Missouri).
Treaty of Ghent – Ended War of 1812.
Monroe Doctrine – Warned Europe to stay out of the Americas.
Market Revolution – A shift from subsistence to commercial farming, driven by new technology and transportation.
Agrarian – Relating to farming or rural ways of life, often idealized in early American society.
National Road – The first federally funded highway, improving trade and westward movement.
Railroad, Steamboat, Canals – Innovations that revolutionized transportation and economic growth in the 1800s.
Eli Whitney – Inventor of the cotton gin and promoter of interchangeable parts.
Interchangeable parts – Standardized parts that allowed for faster, cheaper manufacturing and repair.
Factory System – A method of production using machines and division of labor under one roof.
Cotton Gin – Machine that quickly removed seeds from cotton, increasing slavery and the Southern economy.
Irish Potato Famine – 1840s crisis that caused mass Irish immigration to the U.S.
Irish and German immigrants – Major immigrant groups who settled in urban areas and the Midwest.
Tenement Houses – Crowded, poorly built urban housing for immigrants and the working class.
Nativists – Americans who opposed immigration, fearing cultural and economic impacts.
Middle Class – Social class that grew during industrialization, often white-collar workers and professionals.
Protestant Christianity – Dominant American religious tradition; shaped moral reform movements.
Temperance – Movement to reduce or ban alcohol consumption, rooted in religious and social concerns.
Cult of Domesticity – Ideal that women should stay at home and focus on family and morality.
Lowell Factory – Textile mill in Massachusetts that employed young women under strict conditions.
Franchise – The right to vote, gradually extended to more white men during the Jacksonian era.
Panic of 1819 – First major U.S. economic depression caused by land speculation and bank failures.
Democrats – Jackson’s party favoring states’ rights, the “common man,” and limited federal government.
National Republicans – Party opposing Jackson, supporting a strong federal role in economic development.
The Election of 1824 – Contested election where no candidate won a majority, leading to a House decision.
The Corrupt Bargain – Alleged deal between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to secure the presidency.
Whigs – Political party opposing Jackson, supporting internal improvements and economic nationalism.
Tariff of 1828 – High tariff that angered the South and led to the nullification crisis.
John Quincy Adams – 6th U.S. president accused of winning through the “corrupt bargain.”
John C. Calhoun – Southern politician who supported states’ rights and nullification.
Tariff of Abominations – Southern term for the Tariff of 1828, seen as unfairly benefiting the North.
Doctrine of Nullification – Idea that states can nullify federal laws they consider unconstitutional.
Force Bill 1833 – Authorized President Jackson to use military force to enforce tariffs.
Indian Removal Act of 1830 – Law authorizing removal of Native Americans to lands west of the Mississippi.
Worcester v. Georgia – Supreme Court case that ruled in favor of Cherokee sovereignty; ignored by Jackson.
Treaty of New Echota – Agreement used by the U.S. to justify removing the Cherokee, despite opposition.
Trail of Tears – Forced relocation of Cherokee and other tribes, resulting in thousands of deaths.
Romanticism – Art and literary movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism.
Second Great Awakening – Religious revival emphasizing salvation, personal piety, and social reform.
Hudson River School – Art movement celebrating American landscapes and nature.
Transcendentalism – Philosophical movement promoting self-reliance, nature, and intuition.
Utopian Communities – Experimental societies aiming for social perfection (e.g., Brook Farm, Oneida).
Shakers – Religious group practicing celibacy and communal living.
Oneida Community – Utopian group practicing communal property and complex marriage.
Mormons – Religious group founded by Joseph Smith; faced persecution and migrated west.
Joseph Smith – Founder of Mormonism and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
American Temperance Society – Organization that promoted abstinence from alcohol.
Abolitionist – Movement to end slavery in the U.S.
William Lloyd Garrison – Radical abolitionist and editor of The Liberator.
Frederick Douglass – Former slave, abolitionist, and powerful orator and writer.
Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 – First women’s rights convention in the U.S.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Lucretia Mott – Leaders of the women’s rights movement and organizers of Seneca Falls.
Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions – Document demanding gender equality, modeled on the Declaration of Independence.
Syncretic religions – Blends of different religious beliefs, often formed by enslaved Africans in the Americas.
Nat Turner’s Rebellion 1831 – Slave uprising in Virginia that led to harsher slave laws.
Amistad 1839 – Slave ship revolt that led to a Supreme Court case affirming freedom for the captives.
White supremacy – Belief in the inherent superiority of white people; used to justify slavery and segregation.
California Gold Rush – Mass migration to California in 1849 after gold was discovered.
Preemption Acts – Gave settlers the right to buy land they had already occupied and improved.
James K. Polk – Expansionist president during the Mexican-American War and Manifest Destiny.
Sam Houston – Leader of Texas independence and first president of the Republic of Texas.
Alamo – Battle where Texans fought and lost to Mexican forces, later becoming a symbol of resistance.
Battle of San Jacinto – Final battle in the Texas Revolution where Houston’s forces defeated Santa Anna.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – Ended the Mexican-American War; gave the U.S. vast new territory.
Mexican Cession – Land ceded by Mexico in 1848, including present-day California, Nevada, and more.
Texas 1836 – Year Texas declared independence from Mexico and became its own republic.
Gadsden Purchase – 1854 land purchase from Mexico to facilitate southern railroad construction.
Wilmot Proviso – Proposal to ban slavery in land acquired from Mexico; never passed.
Free Soil Party – Political party opposing the expansion of slavery into western territories.
Popular Sovereignty – Idea that people in a territory should vote on whether to allow slavery.
Fugitive Slave Law – Required return of runaway slaves, even from free states; angered Northerners.
Cultural enclaves – Ethnic communities that preserved traditions in immigrant neighborhoods.
Know-Nothing Party – Anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic party of the 1850s.
Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Influential novel that exposed the horrors of slavery.
Underground Railroad – Network of secret routes and safe houses for escaping slaves.
John Brown – Radical abolitionist who used violence, including at Harpers Ferry.
Raid at Harpers Ferry – John Brown’s failed attempt to start a slave rebellion by seizing an armory.
Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 – Allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, repealing the Missouri Compromise.
Bleeding Kansas – Violent conflict between pro- and anti-slavery settlers in Kansas.
Stephen Douglas – Senator who promoted popular sovereignty and debated Lincoln.
Dred Scott Decision – Supreme Court ruling that African Americans were not citizens and Congress couldn’t ban slavery in the territories.
Election of 1860 – Abraham Lincoln’s victory led to Southern secession.
South Carolina secedes – First state to leave the Union after Lincoln’s election.
Abraham Lincoln – 16th president who led the Union during the Civil War and ended slavery.
Confederate States of America – Secessionist government formed by Southern states.
Jefferson Davis – President of the Confederacy during the Civil War.
NYC Draft Riots 1863 – Violent protests against the Civil War draft, largely by Irish immigrants.
Robert E. Lee – Leading Confederate general during the Civil War.
Stonewall Jackson – Confederate general known for his fearless tactics.
Fort Sumter – Site of the first shots of the Civil War.
First Battle of Bull Run – First major battle of the Civil War; Confederate victory shocked the North.
Anaconda Plan – Union strategy to blockade the South and control the Mississippi River.
Battle of Vicksburg – Union victory that gave control of the Mississippi River.
March to the Sea – General Sherman’s destructive campaign through Georgia to break Southern will.
Ulysses S. Grant – Union general who accepted Lee’s surrender; later became president.
Emancipation Proclamation – Lincoln’s 1863 declaration freeing slaves in Confederate states.
Appomattox Court House – Site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant, ending the Civil War.
Gettysburg Address – Lincoln’s speech honoring fallen soldiers and redefining the Civil War’s purpose.
Reconstruction – Era of rebuilding the South and integrating freed slaves into society after the Civil War.
Ten Percent Plan – Lincoln’s lenient plan for Southern states’ readmission to the Union.
John Wilkes Booth – Assassinated Abraham Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in 1865.
Andrew Johnson – Lincoln’s successor; clashed with Congress over Reconstruction policies.
Black codes – Southern laws restricting the rights of African Americans after the Civil War.
Radical Republicans – Members of Congress who wanted harsh Reconstruction and full rights for freedmen.
Freedmen’s Bureau – Government agency that provided aid to freed slaves and poor whites.
Civil Rights Act of 1866 – Law granting citizenship and equal rights to African Americans.
14th Amendment – Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all born in the U.S.
Reconstruction Acts of 1867 – Divided the South into military districts to enforce Reconstruction.
Tenure of Office Act – Law limiting the president’s power to remove federal officials; led to Johnson’s impeachment.
15th Amendment – Gave African American men the right to vote.
Lucy Stone & Henry Blackwell – Abolitionist couple who supported women’s suffrage and civil rights.
Ku Klux Klan – White supremacist group that used terror to oppose Reconstruction and black rights.
Compromise of 1877 – Ended Reconstruction by withdrawing federal troops from the South in exchange for Hayes becoming president.
Cold War – A period of political tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union after WWII.
Communism – A system where the government controls property and production, as in the USSR.
Satellite States – Eastern European nations under Soviet control during the Cold War.
Containment – U.S. policy to prevent the spread of communism abroad.
Truman Doctrine – U.S. support for countries resisting communism, first in Greece and Turkey.
Marshall Plan – U.S. program giving aid to rebuild Western Europe after WWII.
Berlin Blockade – Soviet attempt to cut off Allied access to West Berlin in 1948.
Berlin Airlifts – U.S. and British planes delivered supplies to West Berlin to counter the blockade.
NATO – A military alliance of the U.S., Canada, and Western Europe to oppose the Soviet Union.
Domino Theory – Idea that if one country fell to communism, others nearby would too.
Vietnam War – U.S. conflict in Southeast Asia to stop the spread of communism.
Korean War – War between communist North Korea and democratic South Korea, backed by the U.S.
38th Parallel – The dividing line between North and South Korea.
Gulf of Tonkin – Incident that led to increased U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
Vietnamization – Nixon’s plan to withdraw U.S. troops and turn the war over to South Vietnam.
Tet Offensive – A major North Vietnamese attack that turned American opinion against the war.
Bay of Pigs Invasion – Failed U.S.-backed effort to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba.
Cuban Missile Crisis – 1962 confrontation over Soviet missiles in Cuba.
Mutual Assured Destruction – The idea that nuclear war would destroy both the U.S. and USSR.
Nuclear Proliferation – Spread of nuclear weapons to more nations during the Cold War.
Stockpiling – Accumulating weapons, especially nuclear, during the arms race.
CIA & Shah – CIA helped overthrow Iran’s leader and reinstated the pro-American Shah.
The Second Red Scare – Fear of communist infiltration in the U.S. after WWII.
McCarthyism – Unfounded accusations of communism led by Senator McCarthy.
HUAC – Investigated alleged communists, especially in Hollywood.
Hollywood Ten – Filmmakers who refused to testify before HUAC and were blacklisted.
Federal Loyalty & Security Program – Truman’s effort to check government employees for communist ties.
The Rosenberg Case – A couple executed for allegedly passing atomic secrets to the Soviets.
Taft-Hartley Act – Limited the power of labor unions during the Cold War.
Watergate – Scandal involving Nixon’s cover-up of a break-in, leading to his resignation.
Military-Industrial Complex – Eisenhower's warning about defense contractors influencing government policy.
Civil Rights Act (1964) – Outlawed segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination.
Voting Rights Act (1965) – Ended practices like literacy tests that blocked Black voters.
Brown v. Board of Education – Declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.
Southern Manifesto – Statement by Southern politicians opposing school desegregation.
Little Rock Nine – Black students who integrated Central High School under federal protection.
Bus Boycott – Montgomery protest sparked by Rosa Parks that ended bus segregation.
Sit-ins – Nonviolent protests against segregated lunch counters.
MLK Jr. – Leader of the civil rights movement who promoted nonviolent protest.
SCLC – Organization led by MLK to coordinate civil rights protests.
Malcolm X – Civil rights leader who promoted Black empowerment and self-defense.
Black Panthers – Militant group that fought for Black rights and against police brutality.
Loving v. Virginia – Struck down laws banning interracial marriage.
United Farm Workers – Labor union led by César Chávez fighting for farmworkers’ rights.
Occupation of Alcatraz – Native American protest demanding rights and recognition.
Gideon v. Wainwright – Established the right to a court-appointed attorney.
Griswold v. Connecticut – Established a right to privacy in contraceptive use.
Engel v. Vitale – Banned official prayer in public schools.
Baker v. Carr – Required legislative districts to have roughly equal populations.
Roe v. Wade – Legalized abortion based on the right to privacy.
Bakke v. UC – Allowed affirmative action but banned strict racial quotas.
Counterculture – Youth movement that rejected traditional values in favor of peace and freedom.
Hippies – Young people in the 1960s who embraced alternative lifestyles and antiwar ideals.
Woodstock Music Festival – 1969 event symbolizing peace, music, and counterculture.
The Feminine Mystique – Book by Betty Friedan that challenged traditional gender roles.
NOW (National Organization for Women) – Group advocating women’s rights and equality.
ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) – Proposed constitutional amendment for gender equality.
STOP ERA – Movement opposing the ERA, led by Phyllis Schlafly.
Sexual Revolution – Social movement challenging traditional views on sex and gender roles.
Stonewall Riots – 1969 LGBTQ+ uprising that started the gay rights movement.
SDS – Student activist group that protested the Vietnam War and advocated for civil rights.
YAF – Conservative youth group promoting anti-communism and limited government.
Port Huron Statement – SDS manifesto calling for participatory democracy.
WSP (Women Strike for Peace) – Women’s antiwar group opposing nuclear arms and the Vietnam War.
GI Bill – Gave WWII veterans benefits for education and housing.
Baby Boom – A sharp rise in birth rates following WWII.
Levittowns – Mass-produced suburban housing developments after WWII.
Sunbelt States – Southern and Western states that saw population growth post-WWII.
Mass Culture – Widespread cultural norms shaped by media and consumerism.
Television – Dominant medium for entertainment and political messaging in postwar America.
Disposable Income – Extra money for spending on non-essentials in the consumer economy.
Advertising – A key driver of postwar consumer culture.
Rock n Roll – Music that became popular among youth and symbolized rebellion.
Beatniks – Writers and artists who rejected mainstream values in the 1950s.
Catcher in the Rye – Novel expressing teenage alienation and critique of conformity.
Silent Spring – Rachel Carson’s book that launched the environmental movement.
Earth Day – Annual event to raise awareness of environmental issues.
EPA – Agency created in 1970 to enforce environmental protection laws.
Three Mile Island – A nuclear accident that raised concerns about energy safety.
OPEC – Oil-producing nations that caused U.S. energy crises in the 1970s.
Stagflation – Economic stagnation with inflation and unemployment in the 1970s.
The New Right – Conservative movement favoring traditional values, small government, and free markets.
John Birch Society – Conservative group that believed communists had infiltrated the U.S. government.
Neoconservatism – Political movement emphasizing free markets, strong military, and traditional values.
Jerry Falwell / Moral Majority – Evangelical leader who mobilized conservative Christians into politics.
Reagan Doctrine – U.S. support for anti-communist movements worldwide during Reagan’s presidency.
Reaganomics / Supply-Side Economics – Economic theory promoting tax cuts to encourage investment and growth.
Economic Recovery Act – 1981 law that significantly cut income taxes under Reagan.
Deregulation – Reduction of government rules in industries to promote competition and efficiency.
Energy Crisis – Shortages and rising oil prices in the 1970s and early 1980s impacting the economy.
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – Reagan’s proposed space-based missile defense system (“Star Wars”).
Iran-Contra Affair – Secret U.S. deal to sell arms to Iran and fund Nicaraguan rebels (Contras), despite a ban.
Nuclear Disarmament – Cold War-era treaties aimed at reducing nuclear weapons (e.g., START).
Detente – Policy of easing tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s.
Mikhail Gorbachev – Soviet leader who introduced reforms and helped end the Cold War.
Glasnost – Gorbachev’s policy of openness and transparency in the Soviet Union.
Perestroika – Gorbachev’s economic restructuring policy to reform the Soviet economy.
INF Agreement – 1987 treaty where the U.S. and USSR agreed to eliminate intermediate-range missiles.
Fall of the Berlin Wall – 1989 event symbolizing the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
Digital Revolution – Rise of computers and the internet transforming society and work.
Increased Productivity – Rise in economic output due to technological advances and efficiency.
Growing Income Gap – Widening disparity between rich and poor Americans.
Outsourcing – Sending jobs overseas for cheaper labor and production.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) – 1994 agreement promoting free trade between U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
Immigration and Nationality Act – 1965 law that abolished immigration quotas and increased diversity.
Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) – Law that penalized employers hiring undocumented immigrants and granted amnesty to some.
2000 Election – Controversial presidential election decided by the Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore.
War on Terror – U.S. global military campaign launched after the 9/11 attacks.
Osama bin Laden – Leader of al-Qaeda and mastermind behind the 9/11 attacks.
Operation Iraqi Freedom – 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq to remove Saddam Hussein.
Saddam Hussein – Iraqi dictator overthrown during the Iraq War.
Department of Homeland Security – U.S. agency created after 9/11 to coordinate national security.
Patriot Act – Law expanding surveillance powers to combat terrorism.
Climate Change – Long-term global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions, increasingly a political issue.
Mechanization of Agriculture – The use of machines like the steel plow and mechanical reaper to increase farming efficiency and production.
National Grange Movement – A farmers' organization that sought to improve conditions through education and political advocacy.
Granger Laws – State laws regulating railroad rates and storage fees to protect farmers.
Commerce Act of 1886 – Law that regulated railroads to ensure fair rates and prevent discrimination.
Interstate Commerce Commission – The first federal agency to monitor business operations, especially railroads.
Pacific Railroads Act of 1862 – Provided federal support for building the Transcontinental Railroad.
Transcontinental Railroad – Railroad completed in 1869 that connected the East and West coasts of the U.S.
Homestead Act of 1862 – Offered 160 acres of free land to settlers who lived on and improved it for five years.
Boomtowns – Rapidly growing towns, often due to mining or railroads, that sometimes quickly became ghost towns.
Sodbusters – Great Plains farmers who used sod to build homes and worked tough soil with innovative methods.
The Frontier – The unsettled or sparsely settled area of the West, representing opportunity and freedom.
Frederick Jackson Turner “The Significance of the Frontier” – Historian who argued the frontier shaped American democracy and character.
Reservation System – Lands set aside for Native Americans, often on poor soil and under restrictive terms.
Assimilation Movement – Aimed to integrate Native Americans into white society through education and lifestyle changes.
Sioux Wars – A series of conflicts between the U.S. Army and the Sioux tribes in the 19th century.
Ghost Dance Movement – A Native American religious movement that hoped to restore tribal lands and culture.
Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 – Ended the recognition of tribes as sovereign nations and made them wards of the state.
Dawes Act – Divided tribal lands into individual plots to encourage private land ownership and assimilation.
Wounded Knee – The 1890 massacre of Lakota Sioux by the U.S. Army, marking the end of major Native resistance.
Henry Grady – Southern journalist who promoted the idea of a ‘New South’ based on industry.
New South – Vision for a modernized, industrial South after the Civil War.
Sharecropping – System where freedmen farmed land in exchange for a share of crops, often leading to debt.
Racial Segregation – Legal separation of races, especially in the South under Jim Crow laws.
Plessy v. Ferguson – 1896 Supreme Court decision that upheld ‘separate but equal’ segregation.
Jim Crow Laws – State laws enforcing racial segregation in the South.
Ida B Wells – African American journalist who led anti-lynching campaigns and civil rights activism.
Henry Turner – Black nationalist and bishop who supported African American emigration to Africa.
Booker T Washington – Civil rights leader who advocated vocational education and economic self-reliance.
Industrialization – Rapid growth of factories and mechanized production in the 19th century.
Railroad – Expanded across the U.S., linking regions, boosting trade, and encouraging westward expansion.
Bessemer Process – Cheap method to mass-produce steel, revolutionizing construction and industry.
Coal – Essential fuel source for factories, trains, and steamships during industrialization.
Telegraph – Invented by Samuel Morse, it enabled near-instant communication across long distances.
Telephone – Invented by Alexander Graham Bell, it revolutionized personal and business communication.
Gilded Age – Late 1800s period marked by rapid growth, wealth, and corruption.
John D. Rockefeller – Founder of Standard Oil, he dominated the oil industry using horizontal integration.
Standard Oil Company – Monopoly controlling most U.S. oil, symbolizing corporate power.
Horizontal Integration – Business strategy of buying out competitors to create monopolies.
Andrew Carnegie – Steel magnate who used vertical integration and promoted philanthropy.
Vertical Integration – Controlling every step of production from raw materials to distribution.
Steel – Vital material for infrastructure, railroads, and buildings during industrial growth.
Laissez-faire – Government non-interference in the economy, allowing free-market capitalism to flourish.
Social Darwinism – Belief that economic success comes from natural superiority and competition.
Captains of Industry – Business leaders praised for innovation and contributions to the economy.
Robber Barons – Critics' term for wealthy industrialists who exploited workers and bent laws.
Gospel of Wealth – Carnegie’s idea that the rich should use their wealth to benefit society.
Conspicuous Consumption – Lavish spending to publicly display wealth and status.
Panic of 1893 – Major economic depression triggered by railroad failures and bank collapses.
Panic of 1873 – Economic downturn caused by over-speculation in railroads and finance.
Great Railroad Strike – 1877 national strike over wage cuts; crushed by federal troops.
Pullman Strike – 1894 railway strike led by Eugene V. Debs; ended by federal intervention.
Knights of Labor – Early labor union that sought broad social reform and worker rights.
Haymarket Square Riot – Violent labor protest in Chicago that hurt the labor movement's reputation.
Eugene V. Debs – Socialist labor leader and founder of the American Railway Union.
American Federation of Labor (AFL) – Union of skilled workers led by Samuel Gompers for better wages and hours.
Samuel Gompers – AFL founder who focused on practical labor reforms over broad social change.
Ethnic Enclaves – Urban neighborhoods where immigrants preserved language, culture, and community.
Tenements – Overcrowded, unsanitary apartment buildings for poor urban workers.
Exoduster Movement – Migration of African Americans to Kansas after Reconstruction for land and freedom.
Henry Cabot Lodge – Republican senator who opposed immigration and the League of Nations.
Labor Unions – Groups that organized workers to fight for better wages, hours, and conditions.
Chinese Immigrants – Faced discrimination and exclusion, especially on the West Coast.
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 – First major U.S. law to restrict immigration based on race.
Jane Addams – Founded Hull House to aid immigrants and promote social reform.
Settlement Houses – Community centers providing services to immigrants and the poor.
White Collar Workers – Office and managerial workers who expanded during industrialization.
Middle Class – Grew in the Gilded Age, made up of professionals and white-collar workers.
Philanthropy – Wealthy individuals donating to education, arts, and public causes.
Phoebe Apperson Hearst – Philanthropist and supporter of women’s education.
Unskilled Labor – Factory or manual workers with minimal training or education.
Single Tax – Proposed by Henry George, a tax on land value to reduce inequality.
Temperance – Movement to reduce or ban alcohol, linked to moral and social reform.
“Looking Backward” – Edward Bellamy – Utopian novel imagining a future socialist America.
Socialism – System advocating public or worker ownership of production and wealth.
Social Gospel – Christian movement urging social justice, charity, and reform.
Wealth of Nations – Adam Smith’s book promoting capitalism and free markets.
Democrats – Generally supported limited government, states’ rights, and agrarian interests during this era.
Republicans – Favored tariffs, industrial growth, and a strong national government.
Patronage – The practice of giving government jobs to political supporters and allies.
Andrew Jackson’s spoils system – Introduced patronage as a reward for political loyalty.
Pendleton Act – 1883 law establishing a merit-based civil service system and limiting patronage.
Gold Standard – Monetary system where currency is backed by gold, favored by creditors and big business.
Tariffs – Taxes on imports to protect American industries; a divisive political issue.
Protective Tariffs – High tariffs meant to shield U.S. industries from foreign competition.
Populist Party – Agrarian political movement advocating for farmers’ rights, silver currency, and regulation.
Omaha Platform – 1892 Populist Party agenda calling for free silver, income tax, and railroad regulation.
Political Machines – Corrupt organizations controlling city politics through patronage and favors.
Tammany Hall – Powerful NYC political machine led by Boss Tweed.
Boss Tweed – Corrupt leader of Tammany Hall who stole millions from NYC taxpayers.
Imperialism – Policy of extending a nation’s power through diplomacy or military force.
Alaska – Purchased from Russia in 1867, mocked as “Seward’s Folly” until gold and oil were found.
Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis – Josiah Strong – Justified imperialism using religion and racial superiority.
The Influence of Sea Power upon History – Alfred Thayer Mahan – Argued strong navies were key to world power.
Anti-Imperialists – Opposed U.S. expansion, citing self-determination and moral concerns.
Isolationism – U.S. policy of avoiding foreign entanglements, especially in Europe.
Self-determination – The right of people to choose their own government; often used against imperialism.
The Spanish-American War – 1898 conflict that resulted in U.S. acquiring the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico.
Cuba – U.S. intervened in its independence from Spain, later restricted it with the Platt Amendment.
Yellow Journalism – Sensationalized news used to stir public support for war, led by Hearst and Pulitzer.
Joseph Pulitzer – Newspaper tycoon known for yellow journalism and media influence.
William Randolph Hearst – Powerful media owner whose papers pushed for war with Spain.
The U.S.S. Maine – U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor; blamed on Spain, spurring war.
Platt Amendment – Gave the U.S. control over Cuban foreign policy and allowed military intervention.
The Philippines – Acquired after the Spanish-American War; led to a brutal U.S. war to suppress Filipino independence.
President McKinley – President during the Spanish-American War; supported expansion and imperialism.
Teddy Roosevelt – Hero of San Juan Hill, became president; supported imperialism and reform.
Hawaii Annexed – Overthrown monarchy led to U.S. annexation in 1898 for strategic and economic reasons.
Open Door Economics with China – U.S. policy promoting equal trade access in China without colonization.
The Progressive Era – Reform movement (1890s–1920s) aimed at addressing problems from industrialization, urbanization, and corruption.
Muckrakers – Investigative journalists who exposed social and political issues (e.g., Sinclair, Tarbell, Riis).
Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle – Novel that revealed unsanitary meatpacking conditions, leading to food safety reforms.
Ida Tarbell on Standard Oil – Exposed Rockefeller’s monopolistic practices in her history of the company.
Jacob Riis – How the Other Half Lives – Photojournalism exposing poor urban living conditions.
Secret Ballot – Voting method that allowed privacy and reduced corruption.
17th Amendment – Established the direct election of U.S. senators by voters.
19th Amendment – Granted women the right to vote (ratified in 1920).
Initiatives – Citizens can propose new laws via petition and vote.
18th Amendment – Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol (Prohibition).
Referendums – Citizens vote directly on proposed laws or amendments.
Recall – Allowed voters to remove elected officials from office before their term ended.
Taylorism – Scientific management to increase labor efficiency, often dehumanizing.
W.E.B. DuBois – Co-founder of the NAACP; pushed for immediate civil rights and higher education for Black Americans.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) – Civil rights organization founded to fight racial discrimination.
Social Justice – Progressive belief in equal rights and protections for all groups.
The Niagara Movement – DuBois-led group advocating for full civil rights and political representation.
The Square Deal – Roosevelt’s domestic program: control corporations, consumer protection, conservation.
Anthracite Coal Strike – 1902 labor strike resolved by Roosevelt through federal mediation.
Trust Buster – Nickname for Roosevelt for breaking up monopolies under antitrust laws.
Sherman Antitrust Act – 1890 law aimed at preventing monopolies and promoting competition.
Pure Food & Drug Act – 1906 law regulating food labeling and banning harmful substances.
Meat Inspection Act – 1906 act requiring federal inspection of meatpacking plants.
Forest Reserve Act – Authorized the president to set aside public forest lands.
World War I and U.S. Involvement:
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand – Sparked WWI in 1914 between European alliances.
Triple Entente – Allied Powers – France, Britain, Russia (later U.S. joined).
Triple Alliance – Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire.
Sinking of the Lusitania – British ship sunk by Germans, killing Americans and stirring U.S. outrage.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare – German policy of attacking all ships in war zones, including neutrals.
Zimmerman Telegram – German proposal to Mexico to join war against U.S.; helped push U.S. into WWI.
American Expeditionary Forces – U.S. troops sent to fight in Europe under General Pershing.
Treaty of Versailles – November 11th, 1918 – Ended WWI; imposed harsh terms on Germany.
Fourteen Points – Wilson’s plan for postwar peace, promoting self-determination and League of Nations.
League of Nations – International peace organization proposed by Wilson, but U.S. never joined.
Total War – Mobilization of all society’s resources (economic, political, cultural) for war.
War Industries Board – Coordinated production of war materials in U.S. factories.
Food Administration – Encouraged voluntary rationing and increased food production.
Espionage & Sedition Acts – Limited free speech during wartime; targeted dissenters.
Schenck v. the United States – Supreme Court upheld limits on free speech during wartime (“clear and present danger”).
Spanish Flu – Global pandemic (1918–1919) that killed millions, including in U.S. military camps.
The Red Scare – Widespread fear of communism and radical leftism after WWI, especially following the Russian Revolution.
Palmer Raids – Government raids led by Attorney General Palmer to arrest and deport suspected radicals and anarchists.
Emergency Quota Act 1921 – First immigration restriction law based on nationality; set quotas favoring northern Europeans.
National Origins Act 1924 – Restricted immigration by setting quotas based on 1890 census, further discriminating against southern/eastern Europeans and Asians.
Great Migration – Movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban North during WWI and the 1920s.
Tulsa Race Riots (Tulsa Massacre) – 1921 white mob destroyed the prosperous Black neighborhood of Greenwood in Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Henry Ford – Revolutionized automobile production with the assembly line and Model T.
Automobiles – Model T – Affordable car mass-produced by Ford, transforming American life and transportation.
Assembly line – Method of mass production where each worker performs one task in the manufacturing process.
Suburbs – Residential areas outside cities that expanded due to cars and transportation improvements.
Radio – New form of mass communication that spread news, entertainment, and culture.
Cinema – Popularized film as entertainment; major influence on American culture.
The Jazz Singer 1927 – First “talkie” movie with synchronized sound, marking the decline of silent films.
Flappers – Young women of the 1920s who challenged traditional gender norms through fashion and behavior.
Harlem Renaissance – Cultural movement celebrating African American art, literature, and music in the 1920s.
Louis Armstrong – Influential jazz musician known for his trumpet and vocal style.
Langston Hughes – Leading Harlem Renaissance poet known for celebrating Black life and struggle.
Claude McKay – Jamaican-American writer and poet who addressed racism and Black identity.
Gertrude Stein’s Lost Generation – Group of post-WWI American writers disillusioned with U.S. values; lived in Europe.
F. Scott Fitzgerald – Author of The Great Gatsby, critiquing materialism and excess of the 1920s.
Ernest Hemingway – WWI veteran and novelist known for minimalist style and themes of masculinity and war.
Modernists – Advocated new artistic and cultural expressions, often rejecting traditional norms.
Fundamentalists – Religious conservatives who upheld literal interpretations of the Bible.
Scopes Monkey Trial – 1925 trial over teaching evolution; symbolized conflict between science and religion.
Black Tuesday – October 29, 1929, stock market crash that marked the start of the Great Depression.
Speculation – Risky investments in stocks with hopes of quick profit; contributed to the crash.
Hawley-Smoot Tariff – High tariff that worsened the Depression by reducing international trade.
Hoovervilles (shantytowns) – Makeshift housing for the homeless during the Depression, named after President Hoover.
FDR – Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 32nd U.S. President who led the nation through the Great Depression and most of World War II.
Limited Welfare State – Government policies under the New Deal aimed to provide basic economic support without full government control.
NEW DEAL – Series of programs and reforms (1933–1939) by FDR to combat the Great Depression through relief, recovery, and reform.
Public Works Administration (PWA) – New Deal program that funded large-scale public infrastructure projects to provide jobs.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – New Deal agency that built dams and power plants to modernize the Tennessee Valley region.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – Employed young men in conservation projects like planting trees and building parks.
National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 – Promoted industrial growth and fair wages; declared unconstitutional in 1935.
Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 – Separated commercial and investment banking; established the FDIC.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – Insured bank deposits to restore trust in the banking system.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – Regulates the stock market and prevents corporate fraud.
Social Security Act of 1935 – Created pensions for retirees, unemployment insurance, and aid to the disabled.
Judicial Reorganization Bill (Court Packing Scheme) – FDR’s failed attempt to expand the Supreme Court and gain favorable rulings.
Harding’s “return to normalcy” – Warren Harding’s 1920 campaign promise to return to pre-WWI isolationist and laissez-faire policies.
Benito Mussolini of Italy – Fascist Party – Dictator of Italy who established the first fascist regime in Europe.
Adolf Hitler of Germany – Nazi Party – Dictator who led Germany into WWII; responsible for the Holocaust.
Hitler invading Poland – Event on Sept. 1, 1939, that triggered Britain and France to declare war on Germany, starting WWII.
Fordney-McCumber Act of 1922 – Raised tariffs to protect U.S. industry but harmed international trade.
Kellogg-Briand Pact – International agreement to renounce war as a means of resolving disputes.
Nye Committee – Investigated arms manufacturers and suggested they pushed U.S. into WWI for profit.
Interventionists – Americans who supported involvement in WWII to stop fascism and protect democracy.
Cash and Carry Program – Allowed warring nations to buy U.S. goods if they paid cash and transported them.
Destroyers for Bases Program – Gave Britain U.S. destroyers in exchange for military base rights.
Lend-Lease Act – Allowed U.S. to lend weapons and supplies to Allies before entering WWII.
December 7th, 1941 – Pearl Harbor – Japanese attack on U.S. naval base; led to U.S. entry into WWII.
War Production Board – Government agency that coordinated conversion of industries to war production.
Office of War Mobilization – Managed wartime economy and coordinated between agencies.
Double V Campaign – African American movement for victory against fascism abroad and racism at home.
Tuskegee Airmen – First African American military aviators who fought in WWII.
Selective Service and Training Act of 1940 – First peacetime draft in U.S. history.
Korematsu v. the United States (1944) – Supreme Court upheld internment of Japanese Americans during wartime.
Executive Order 9066 – Authorized internment of Japanese Americans during WWII.
Holocaust & Concentration Camps – Systematic genocide of six million Jews and other groups by Nazi Germany.
Island Hopping Campaign – Allied strategy of capturing key Pacific islands to move closer to Japan.
Atomic Bombs – Nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, leading to Japanese surrender.
THE MANHATTAN PROJECT – Secret U.S. project to develop atomic weapons during WWII.
Tehran Conference – 1943 meeting of Allied leaders to plan the final strategy against Nazi Germany.
D-Day – June 6, 1944, Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France; turning point in European theater.
Yalta Conference – 1945 meeting to plan post-war Europe and the United Nations.
The Marshall Plan – U.S. program to rebuild and economically support Western Europe after WWII.
The United Nations – International organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation.
The Battle of the Bulge – Final major German offensive in Europe during WWII; Allies successfully repelled it.