Pysch Ch 1

Introduction to Developmental Science

• Definition: The study of constancy and change throughout the lifespan.

• Field Characteristics:

  • Scientific

  • Applied

  • Interdisciplinary

Basic Issues in Development

Theories of Development

• Definition of Theory: An orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior.

Major Issues

1. Continuous or Discontinuous Development?: Does development occur in a smooth, gradual manner, or in distinct stages?

2. One Course or Many Paths?: Is there a single path of development, or are there multiple trajectories?

3. Nature vs. Nurture: Assessing the relative influence of hereditary factors and environmental influences.

Contexts of Development

• Unique personal and environmental circumstances can lead to different developmental paths.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature: Hereditary information received from parents at conception.

• Nurture: Environmental influences that affect biological and psychological development.

Stability and Plasticity

• Stability: Persistence of individual differences; early experiences shape lifelong patterns.

• Plasticity: Development is open to change throughout life, influenced by key experiences.

The Lifespan Perspective

Overview of Development

• Characteristics:

  • Lifelong

  • Multidimensional and multidirectional

  • Highly plastic

  • Influenced by multiple, interacting forces

Influences on Development

• Types of Forces:

  • Age-graded

  • History-graded

  • Nonnormative

Periods of Development

• Key Stages:

  1. Prenatal: Conception to birth

  2. Infancy and toddlerhood: Birth to 2 years

  3. Early childhood: 2 to 6 years

  4. Middle childhood: 6 to 11 years

  5. Adolescence: 11 to 18 years

  6. Early adulthood: 18 to 40 years

  7. Middle adulthood: 40 to 65 years

  8. Late adulthood: 65 years to death

Domains of Development

• Types of Changes:

  • Physical: Body size, appearance, health.

  • Cognitive: Intellectual abilities.

  • Emotional and social: Interpersonal skills and moral reasoning.

Resilience

• Definition: Ability to adapt effectively in the face of developmental threats.

• Factors Contributing to Resilience:

  • Personal characteristics

  • Warm parental relationships

  • Social support outside the family

  • Community resources

Historical Perspectives on Development

Early Scientific Theories

1. Evolutionary Theory: Principles of natural selection (Darwin).

2. Normative Approach: Development seen as a maturational process, using age-related averages (Hall and Gesell).

3. Mental Testing Movement: Early intelligence testing; focus on individual differences (Binet and Simon).

Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories

1. Psychoanalytic Perspective (Freud and Erikson):

   • Unique life history influences.

   • Conflict between biological drives and societal expectations.

2. Freud’s Personality Structure:

   • Id: Unconscious part, present at birth, biological urges.

   • Ego: Rational part that develops, redirects id impulses.

   • Superego: Conscience developing from interactions with caregivers.

3. Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: Eight stages of development focusing on conflict resolution.

4. Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory:

   • Classical Conditioning: Associative learning (Pavlov).

   • Operant Conditioning: Reinforcers and punishments (Skinner).

   • Social Learning Theory: Emphasis on modeling and observational learning (Bandura).

5. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Stages of intellectual growth from sensorimotor to formal operational.

Recent Theoretical Perspectives

1. Information Processing: Cognitive processes as systematic, akin to computer operations.

2. Developmental Neuroscience: Links brain activity with cognitive and emotional development.

3. Ethology: Study of behavior from an evolutionary perspective, including critical and sensitive periods.

4. Evolutionary Developmental Psychology: Focus on adaptive competencies and the person-environment system.

5. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Culture transmission through social interaction.

6. Ecological Systems Theory: Development influenced by complex relationships in multiple environments.

Research Methodologies in Developmental Science

Key Concepts

• Hypothesis: Theoretical predictions guiding research.

• Research Designs: Framework for data collection.

Systematic Observation Methods

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural settings; potential biases.

• Structured Observation: Controlled environment to elicit desired behavior.

Self-Reports

• Clinical Interviews: Flexible, in-depth conversations.

• Structured Interviews: Standardized questions for data consistency.

Case Study Method

• Rich, detailed data collection; limits on generalization due to biases.

Ethnography

• Cultural observation and interpretation; findings may not be generalizable.

Correlational Research Design

• Examines relationships without manipulation; cannot establish causation.

Experimental Research Design

• Random assignment to conditions; allows for causal inferences.

Types of Experiments

1. Field Experiment: Conducted in natural settings.

2. Natural Experiment: Studies preexisting groups with similar traits.

Research Designs for Studying Development

1. Longitudinal: Same individuals studied over time.

2. Cross-Sectional: Different age groups studied at one time.

3. Sequential: Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.

Ethical Considerations

• Rights of Research Participants:

  • Protection from harm

  • Informed consent

  • Privacy rights

  • Knowledge of study results and any beneficial treatments.

Limits of Use: Material may be copied temporarily for personal, noncommercial purposes only.