CR

Ground Operations and Preflight Essentials

Ground Operations Overview

  • Safe flight begins with ground operations; thorough preflight and ramp procedures reduce risk and set up PIC responsibilities.
  • Ground phase assesses regulatory requirements, aircraft condition, and pilot readiness for PIC duties.

Preflight Assessment and Airworthiness

  • Ground operations cover airworthiness, preflight visual inspection, risk/resource management, and surface movements per AFM/POH and checklists.
  • Airworthiness definition: aircraft and components meet type design or are in a properly altered configuration for safe operation.
  • Two-part preflight: (1) review airworthiness status; (2) visual preflight inspection per AFM/POH to identify required inspection items.
  • Owner/operator maintenance vs. pilot responsibility: pilot determines airworthiness/safety for flight.
  • Aircraft logbooks (airframe, engine, propeller, appliances) must be current, accurate, secure, and available for inspection (not necessarily in the airplane).
  • Required approvals/inspections (examples):
    • 12\text{-calendar-month} annual inspection: 14\text{ CFR part } 91.409(a)
    • 100\text{-hour} inspection (for hire): 14\text{ CFR part } 91.409(b)
    • Transponder certification: 14\text{ CFR part } 91.413
    • Static system/encoder cert (IFR): 14\text{ CFR part } 91.411
    • 30\text{-day} VOR check (IFR): 14\text{ CFR part } 91.171
    • ELT inspection (12 months): 14\text{ CFR part } 91.207(d)
    • ELT battery due: 14\text{ CFR part } 91.207(c)
    • Life-limited parts status per TCDS: 14\text{ CFR part } 91.417
    • ADs/logbook entries: 14\text CFR part } 91.417(a)(2)(v)
    • FAA Form 337 (Major Repair/Alteration): 14\text{ CFR part } 91.417
    • Inoperative equipment: 14\text{ CFR part } 91.213

Visual Preflight Assessment

  • Visual preflight starts on approach to the aircraft; check general appearance and discrepancies (gear alignment, skin damage, stains).
  • Documents on board or affixed: Original Airworthiness Certificate, Original Registration Certificate, Radio Station License (if outside US or > 12{,}500 lb), Operating Limitations (AFM/POH/placards), Official Weight & Balance, Compass Deviation Card, External Data Plate.
  • Cabin/cockpit check: cabin door operation, door posts alignment, interior carpet, seat belts/shoulder harnesses, seats latched, window/crack checks.
  • AFM/POH-based preflight items (typical):
    • Master/alternator/magneto OFF
    • Control column locks removed
    • Landing gear DOWN
    • Fuel selectors operational in all positions (including OFF)
    • Trim set for takeoff
    • Avionics master OFF
    • Circuit breakers IN
    • Flight instruments: airspeed reads 0 (or correct with reference), altimeter correct, magnetic compass accurate, compass correction card legible, conventional wet compass clear and filled with fluid, VSI reads 0

Exterior Surfaces and Documents

  • Preflight sequence per AFM/POH; start at cabin door and proceed in recommended sequence, typically counterclockwise.
  • Inspect for spar line distortions, wing/empennage damage, rivet/screw integrity, and skin condition around high-load areas.
  • Spar lines: look for distortion, dents, bubbles, or cracks; stop-drill cracks near rivet holes when appropriate.
  • Leading edges, wing tips, stabilizers: check for impact damage; be aware of de-icing devices and structural devices.
  • Composite aircraft: inspect for delamination signs (bubbles, hairline cracks, unusual sounds).

Fuel and Oil

  • Fuel types: AVGAS grades include 80/87, 100LL (blue), 100/130 (green); avoid substituting lower grade unless approved.
  • Misfueling hazards: use correct fuel nozzles (AVGAS straight nozzle, jet A has flared nozzle).
  • Fuel quantity: visually verify gauges; ensure adequate reserves; check for fuel stains indicating leaks; inspect for water/sediment in fuel using sump drains.
  • Water/sediment: water collects at low spots; drain each sump and inspect for color and contaminants; consolidate fuel to minimize condensation (keep tanks fuller when possible).
  • Fuel venting: inspect vent lines/caps for blockages or damage; ensure venting allows air to enter during fueling.
  • Oil: use approved oil grade; check oil level during preflight and after refueling; monitor color (darker oil can indicate hours or cylinder issues); ensure oil caps, filters, and drain plugs are secure.

Landing Gear, Tires, Brakes

  • Inspect for leaks, alignment, wear, and overall condition; purpose is to ensure aircraft can be controlled on the ground.
  • Shock struts: check for proper inflation, cleanliness, absence of hydraulic fluid leaks.
  • Tires: check inflation, tread, wear patterns, sidewall damage, embedded objects.
  • Wheel hubs: check for cracks, corrosion; valve stems in good condition.
  • Brakes: check for rust/corrosion, secure fasteners/wires, pad wear, hose integrity; ensure no hydraulic leaks.
  • Nose gear/shimmy dampers: inspect for attachment, leaks, or wear; tailwheel bungee systems (if applicable) inspected for security and condition.
  • Attachment points: inspect skin around gear attachments for wear, corrosion, or damage.

Engine, Propeller, and Cowling

  • Cowling: inspect for loose/damaged fasteners, rivets, latches; check for oil/fuel leaks inside cowling with flashlight.
  • Propeller/spinner: inspect for cracks, dents, corrosion; ensure spinner alignment; check for ice in spinner areas.
  • Pitch/propeller hub: check for oil leaks on controllable-pitch props.
  • Belts: check alternator/generator drive belts for tension and wear.
  • Internal cowling: inspect wiring, hoses, oil/fuel stains; remove foreign objects (bird nests, rags, tools).
  • Exhaust and heat muffs: check for leaks or cracks; verify air filter cleanliness and absence of restrictions.
  • Use AFM/POH guidance for specific checks; allow extra time for advanced avionics systems preflight.

Risk and Resource Management

  • Risk management is a formal process to identify, assess, and mitigate hazards and their consequences.
  • Common hazards: marginal weather, pilot qualification/proficiency gaps, fatigue, maintenance issues, etc.
  • Hazard identification is critical; if hazards are not identified, risk cannot be mitigated.
  • Definitions:
    • Hazard: condition/event that could lead to an undesired event.
    • Risk: future impact or uncertainty from the hazard.
  • Risk Assessment: determine if risk is acceptable; consider alternatives and have viable contingencies.
  • Risk Mitigation: implement options such as delaying, re-routing, or upgrading pilot qualification (IFR, more experienced pilot).
  • Guidance references: Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2).

Resource Management (SRM/CRM)

  • SRM focuses on single-pilot operations; CRM focuses on multi-crew, but SRM principles apply to general aviation.
  • Core SRM components:
    • Situational Awareness: accurate perception of factors affecting the flight (aircraft, environment, external support, pilot).
    • Human Resource Management: effective use of people (weather briefer, maintenance, ATC, passengers); communication via inquiry, advocacy, assertion.
    • Equipment/Automation: monitor automation; know capabilities and limits to prevent complacency; manage workload to avoid overload.
    • Task Management: limit information overload; avoid fixation on non-critical failures (e.g., instrument light) to prevent neglect of higher-priority tasks.
    • Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM): integrate stick-and-rudder, systems operation, and ADM skills; steps include identifying attitudes, behavior modification, stress coping, risk assessment, using all resources, evaluating ADM effectiveness.

Ground Operations and Flight Deck Interaction

  • Ramp environment hazards include people, baggage, vehicles, and other aircraft; pilot must maintain high situational awareness using airport diagrams and standard signals.
  • Refueling: remove passengers during fueling; supervise to ensure correct fuel/quantity and secure caps/cowls after fueling.
  • Passenger management: restrict passenger movement on ramp; ensure safety and supervision.
  • Ground signals: learn standard hand signals used by ground personnel for safe ramp to taxiway/runway departure (Figure 2-12).

Engine Start and Hand Propping (Hazards and Procedures)

  • Engine start hazards: ensure ramp is clear; turn anti-collision lights on; call CLEAR before startup; depress brakes; hold throttle during start; monitor oil pressure.
  • Start checks: typical oil pressure should rise toward specified value; if not rising within time, shut down to prevent damage.
  • Engine starter limits: do not operate continuously more than ~30 seconds; allow 30 seconds to 1 minute cool-down.
  • Hand propping: hazardous; only if no alternatives exist and two trained persons are available; procedures require strict voice commands and clear roles; never allow untrained person near propeller; always ensure stable ground and proper positioning.
  • After starting: beware of propeller arc hazards when removing chocks or reaching into prop arc; only approach from rear when removing chocks.

Taxiing Procedures and Crosswind Considerations

  • Taxiing definition: controlled ground movement under own power; maintain awareness of ramp/airport environment.
  • Prepare with airport diagram readily available; verify clearance before any movement.
  • Look outside and scan for conflicts; maintain safe taxi speed where throttle controls speed; avoid heavy reliance on brakes.
  • Center aircraft on taxiway; use yellow centerlines for alignment; slow before turns; nose/tailwheel considerations for nosewheel vs tailwheel aircraft.
  • Rudder and brakes for turns; avoid over-reliance on brakes; maximum crosswind correction uses rudder and appropriate aileron/elevator as wind dictates.
  • Posture for stopping: stop with nosewheel straight to ease re-entry and start; crosswind taxiing requires more rudder input and less accelerator.
  • Taxiing checks: verify flight instruments indicate proper values at zero airspeed; attitude indicator shows level; altimeter set; turn indicator shows correct turn; gyro cross-checked with magnetic compass; VSI reads zero.

Before-Takeoff Check and Run-Up

  • Before-takeoff check (per AFM/POH) performed near takeoff end; engine warm-up to required temperatures before applying takeoff power.
  • Run-up location should be firm and free of debris; ensure nose or tail alignment with runway centerline before power application.
  • Split attention: monitor inside checks and outside environment to avoid missing hazards.
  • Common run-up checks include:
    • Fuel system set per AFM/POH; tanks selected; pumps as required.
    • Trim set for takeoff; flight controls checked through full deflection.
    • Engine operation: temperatures/pressures normal; magneto/FADEC check; carb heat (if applicable); propeller operation if constant-speed/feathering.
    • Electrical: voltages within range; battery charging status.
    • Vacuum system: adequate vacuum (approx. 4.8\text{ to }5.2\text{ inHg} at 2000 rpm per manufacturer values).
    • Flight instruments reset to departure configuration; avionics programmed with initial frequencies, sources, and courses; takeoff briefing announced aloud.
    • Takeoff briefing sample: outline normal takeoff, wind, VR, initial heading/altitude, engine failure plans, and contingencies.
    • Takeoff checks: runway alignment with magnetic heading, power, RPM, engine smoothness, instruments in green, doors/windows secured, centerline tracking with rudder and ailerons, etc.

Takeoff, After-Landing, and Shutdown

  • Takeoff: run-up complete; power to takeoff; maintain centerline with rudder; ensure doors/windows secured; verify engine instruments in green; after VR, follow planned heading and climb profile; abort plan for engine failure below VR; if failure after VR with remaining runway, follow best-glide path to safe landing area.
  • After-landing roll: maintain runway centerline; decelerate to taxi speed with normal braking; avoid aggressive turns at high speed; perform after-landing checklist after stop beyond runway markings unless manufacturer requires otherwise (e.g., short-field rollout).
  • Parking: choose location to avoid propeller/jet blast hazards; prefer parking into wind when possible; straighten nose/tailwheel before securing.
  • Engine shutdown: follow AFM/POH shutdown checklist; steps typically include parking brake ON, throttle to idle, magneto OFF then ON at idle, propeller FULL INCREASE if applicable, avionics OFF, alternator OFF, mixture IDLE CUTOFF, magnetos OFF, master OFF, and apply locks for security.
  • Post-flight and securing: walk-around inspection, check for fuel/oil leaks around cowling and oil breather, inspect for fuel stains under wings, inspect landing gear and brakes, hangar or tie down, install covers/locks; add fuel to reach next flight requirements and protect from water condensation if inactive.

Chapter Summary (Key Takeaways)

  • Ensure airplane is airworthy via regulatory compliance and AFM/POH guidance before flight.
  • Complete preflight visually and documentarily; manage risks and resources; apply proper surface-based procedures.
  • Ground operations require situational awareness, careful ramp management, and appropriate use of signals, fuel handling, and passenger safety.
  • Manage engine start, taxi, takeoff, and landing with emphasis on risk mitigation, workload, and ADM/SRM principles.
  • End-of-flight procedures (parking, shutdown, post-flight inspection, and hangaring) are essential to maintain airworthiness and safety for subsequent flights.