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ADV US I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE (2024) (1)
UNIT 1: The American Revolution
Key Questions
What changed in Britain’s policy toward the colonies after the French & Indian War?
Why did colonists move from protest to independence?
What role did Enlightenment ideas play in the Declaration of Independence?
British Colonial Policy Shift
Salutary Neglect (pre-1763)
Britain mostly let colonies govern themselves.
Effect: Colonists got used to local control (e.g., town meetings, assemblies).
End of Salutary Neglect
After the French & Indian War, Britain needed revenue → began taxing colonies (Stamp Act, Tea Act).
Colonial reaction: “No taxation without representation” — boycotts, protests.
Declaration of Independence (1776)
Author: Thomas Jefferson
Ideas from: John Locke (natural rights — life, liberty, property)
Unalienable rights: Cannot be taken away (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness)
Grievances: Quartering troops, cutting off trade, imposing taxes without consent, denying trial by jury
Why It Mattered: Justified rebellion as defense of natural rights; declared U.S. a new, independent nation.
PRACTICE ID: Declaration of Independence
Who: Thomas Jefferson + Continental Congress
What: Document declaring American independence
When: July 4, 1776
Where: Philadelphia, PA
Why: To explain why colonies were breaking away from Britain
Effect: Created ideological foundation for American revolution + new gov’t
UNIT 2: Forming a Government
Articles of Confederation (1781–1789)
Structure: 1 Congress, no president or court
Could: declare war, make treaties
Could NOT: tax, regulate trade, enforce laws
Effect: Weak government unable to respond to crisis
Shays’ Rebellion (1786–87)
MA farmers rebel over debt and foreclosures
No federal army to stop them
Effect: Led to call for stronger central gov → Constitutional Convention
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists
Pro-Constitution
Strong national gov
No Bill of Rights needed
Anti-Federalists
Feared strong central gov
Wanted states' rights
Demanded Bill of Rights
Constitutional Convention (1787)
Goal: Revise Articles → ended up writing a new Constitution
Key Compromises:
Great Compromise: Bicameral Congress (Senate = 2/state, House = population)
3/5 Compromise: Slaves = 3/5 of a person for representation + tax
Commerce/Slave Trade Compromise: No export taxes; no slave trade bans for 20 years
Popular Sovereignty
Power comes from the people (Locke’s influence)
Justifies both Constitution and later Pop. Sovereignty debates (like in Kansas)
PRACTICE ID: Shays’ Rebellion
Who: Daniel Shays, MA farmer and former soldier
What: Armed rebellion against debt and foreclosures
When: 1786–87
Where: Massachusetts
Why: Economic depression, unfair taxes, lack of paper money
Effect: Convinced many that Articles were too weak → led to Constitution
UNIT 3: The Constitution
STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT
3 Branches:
Legislative: Makes laws (House + Senate)
Executive: Enforces laws (President, VP, Cabinet)
Judicial: Interprets laws (Supreme Court)
Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances
Branch Checks
Congress Override veto, impeach president or judges
President Veto laws, appoint judges
Courts Declare laws or acts unconstitutional
Designed to avoid tyranny of any one branch (like a king or Parliament)
Federalism
Power shared between federal and state governments
Examples: Both can tax; only federal gov can coin money
Electoral College
Elects the President
Based on number of reps + senators per state
Popular vote doesn't directly choose President
Bill of Rights (1791)
First 10 Amendments
Protect individual rights (speech, religion, press, arms, fair trial, etc.)
A response to Anti-Federalist concerns
Loose vs. Strict Interpretation
Loose (Hamilton)
Elastic Clause = implied powers
Pro-national bank
Big fed gov
Strict (Jefferson)
Gov’t only does what Constitution says
Anti-bank
Small gov
Impeachment Process
House brings charges (majority vote)
Senate holds trial (\frac{2}{3} to convict)
Chief Justice presides if President is on trial
CONSTITUTION ESSAY CONNECTION
Problem with Articles: No ability to tax, raise army, or enforce laws
Constitution’s Fix:
Added executive + court
Power to tax, regulate commerce
Bill of Rights to protect liberty
Compromises to satisfy all states
UNIT 4: Early Government (1789–1815)
Key Questions
How did the new government handle internal dissent?
What were the first major foreign policy and constitutional crises?
How did the first parties emerge and what did they stand for?
Washington’s Presidency (1789–1797)
Hamilton’s Economic Plan
Goal: Establish U.S. credit, support industry, strengthen fed gov.
Main ideas:
National Bank (BUS) – stabilize currency
Assume state debts – link wealthy to gov
Protective tariffs – encourage manufacturing
Opposition: Jefferson & Madison (strict interpreters)
Name to Know: Alexander Hamilton — architect of early financial system, controversial use of loose interpretation.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Farmers in PA protest Hamilton’s excise tax on whiskey
Washington personally leads army to suppress
Effect: Shows federal strength under Constitution (unlike Shays’ Rebellion)
Why It Mattered: Proved gov could enforce laws — key test of authority.
Foreign Affairs: France and Britain
Citizen Genêt Affair (1793)
French diplomat tries to recruit Americans to fight British
Washington demands neutrality → Neutrality Proclamation
Jay’s Treaty (1795)
With Britain: settles some disputes but unpopular in U.S.
Avoids war but angers France
Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)
Warned against:
Permanent foreign alliances
Political parties
Stressed unity, neutrality, and strong central gov
Why It Mattered: Sets tone for early U.S. diplomacy and domestic caution.
John Adams’ Presidency (1797–1801)
XYZ Affair (1797)
U.S. diplomats meet 3 French agents who demand a bribe
Outrage → “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute”
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
Silence opposition (esp. Democratic-Republicans)
Target immigrants (Alien Act) and critics of gov (Sedition Act)
Name to Know: Adams signed these → seen as overreach of federal power
Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions
Jefferson & Madison: argue for nullification — states can void federal laws
Big idea: State power vs. federal authority
Why It Mattered: Introduced doctrine of states’ rights → used later to justify secession.
Election of 1800: “Revolution of 1800”
Peaceful transfer of power from Federalists (Adams) → Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson)
12th Amendment passed: separate ballots for President/VP
Know This: First peaceful party switch → proves Constitution works.
Jefferson’s Presidency (1801–1809)
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Bought from France for $15 mil
Dilemma: Jefferson = strict interpreter → buying land not in Constitution
Doubled U.S. territory
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Explored new land, mapped route to Pacific, documented resources
Why It Mattered: Expanded presidential power + accelerated westward expansion.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
SCOTUS declares part of Judiciary Act unconstitutional
Establishes: Judicial Review — courts can strike down laws
Name to Know: Chief Justice John Marshall – strengthens power of the Supreme Court
James Madison’s Presidency (1809–1817)
War of 1812: Key Causes
British impressment (seizing sailors)
British support for Native resistance
Pressure from War Hawks (Henry Clay)
Events:
White House burned (1814)
Battle of New Orleans = U.S. victory (after peace signed)
Treaty of Ghent (1814): Ends war → status quo antebellum
Effects:
Nationalism rises
Decline of Federalists (Hartford Convention)
Native Americans weakened
Know This: Although it ended in a draw, the war proved U.S. independence and boosted U.S. pride.
PRACTICE ID: Alien and Sedition Acts
Who: President John Adams and Federalist Congress
What: Laws to restrict immigrants and limit speech
When: 1798
Where: United States
Why: Fear of French immigrants + political dissent
Effect: Led to backlash, Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions, damaged Adams’ popularity
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UNIT 5: War of 1812 & the Era of Good Feelings
KEY QUESTIONS
What caused the War of 1812 and how did it change U.S. identity?
Why was the “Era of Good Feelings” both united and divided?
How did Henry Clay's American System try to tie the country together?
WAR OF 1812 (1812–1815)
Causes of War
Impressment: British seizing U.S. sailors
Interference with trade: British blockades + French decrees
Native resistance: Supported by British (esp. Tecumseh)
War Hawks: Clay, Calhoun → want Canada, expansion, honor
Know This: Jefferson’s Embargo Act tried to avoid war but hurt U.S. economy. Madison finally declared war.
Key Events
Battle of Lake Erie (1813): Oliver Hazard Perry’s victory secures Great Lakes
Battle of Thames: Tecumseh killed → Native resistance weakens
British Burn D.C. (1814): Capitol and White House torched
Battle of Baltimore: U.S. defends Fort McHenry → inspires “Star-Spangled Banner”
Battle of New Orleans: Jackson becomes hero (after treaty signed)
Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Ends war with no land gained/lost
Impressment not addressed
Effect: Surge of nationalism, death of Federalist Party
Hartford Convention (1814–15)
New England Federalists oppose war → suggest amendments, even secession
Seen as traitors after war ends → Federalist Party collapses
Why It Mattered: War ends Federalist power; shows rise of nationalism and southern dominance.
PRACTICE ID: Battle of New Orleans
Who: Gen. Andrew Jackson, British Army
What: Decisive U.S. victory in War of 1812
When: Jan 1815
Where: New Orleans, Louisiana
Why: British invaded after peace signed (news hadn’t reached them)
Effect: Huge morale boost, launched Jackson’s career, confirmed American strength
ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS (1815–1825)
James Monroe’s Presidency
Spirit of unity: One political party (Dem-Reps); national pride
BUT: Tensions brewing over tariffs, slavery, and sectionalism
Henry Clay’s American System
Goal: Create interdependent national economy
Component Purpose Status
Protective Tariff Promote U.S. manufacturing Passed (Tariff of 1816)
National Bank Stabilize economy Rechartered (2nd BUS)
Internal Improvements Roads + canals to link regions Not passed federally — states did it
Why It Mattered: Tried to unite N, S, and W economically — but sectional differences remained.
Monroe Doctrine (1823)
Europe: stay out of the Western Hemisphere
U.S.: won’t interfere in European affairs
Motivated by: fear of European re-colonization in Latin America
Backed by: Britain’s navy (though U.S. acted alone)
Know This: First bold foreign policy doctrine → asserts U.S. power in the Americas
Missouri Compromise (1820)
Problem: MO applies as slave state → imbalance in Senate
Solution (Henry Clay):
MO = slave
ME = free
Slavery banned north of 36°30’ line in LA Territory
Why It Mattered: Temporarily solved slavery issue → but highlighted deep sectional divide.
Election of 1824: “Corrupt Bargain”
No one wins majority → House decides
Clay backs John Quincy Adams → Adams wins → makes Clay Sec. of State
Andrew Jackson: outraged, begins permanent campaigning
Name to Know: Henry Clay – “Great Compromiser” but accused of shady backroom deals
PRACTICE ID: Missouri Compromise
Who: Henry Clay, Congress
What: Compromise to maintain Senate balance between free/slave states
When: 1820
Where: U.S. Congress
Why: Missouri’s application would tip slave-state power
Effect: Temporarily eased tensions; set geographic line that later reignites conflict
UNIT 7: Westward Expansion (1820s–1850s)
KEY QUESTIONS
How did Manifest Destiny reflect American beliefs and goals?
How did westward expansion worsen tensions over slavery and Native land?
What were the causes and outcomes of the Mexican-American War?
MANIFEST DESTINY
Concept + Context
Coined by John O’Sullivan (1845)
Belief that U.S. had a divine mission to expand across the continent
Linked to:
American exceptionalism
Economic opportunity
Racial superiority and displacement of Native peoples
Know This: Manifest Destiny = ideology that justified wars, displacement, and slavery expansion
Effects on Native Americans
Disease, warfare, land loss
Indian territories broken up
Forced relocations continued westward
Many tribes made dependent on U.S. government rations
TEXAS: FROM COLONY TO CONFLICT
Mexican Independence & Land Grants
Mexico invites U.S. settlers (empresarios like Stephen Austin) to settle Texas
Must agree to: convert to Catholicism, speak Spanish, follow Mexican law, and not own slaves
Ignored.
Causes of Texas Revolution (1835–36)
Cultural/religious conflict
Slavery bans anger settlers
Santa Anna becomes dictator, ends Mexican Constitution
Texians + Tejanos rebel
Key Events
Battle of the Alamo: All Texan defenders killed, but became rallying cry
Battle of San Jacinto: Sam Houston captures Santa Anna → Texas wins independence
Texas = independent republic (1836–1845)
Annexation of Texas (1845)
Jackson & Van Buren delay → fear of war with Mexico + slavery fight
Polk wins election promising expansion → Texas becomes 28th state
Mexico sees this as act of war
Name to Know: Sam Houston – leads Texas to victory and becomes president of the Lone Star Republic
MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR (1846–1848)
Causes
Annexation of Texas
Border dispute: U.S. says Rio Grande; Mexico says Nueces River
Polk sends troops to disputed zone → claims “American blood was shed on American soil”
Course of the War
U.S. wins every major battle
Captures Mexico City
War ends with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
U.S. gains Mexican Cession:
CA, NV, AZ, NM, UT, parts of CO + WY
Pays Mexico $15 million
Border set at Rio Grande
Why It Mattered: Doubled U.S. size → reopened slavery debate → Compromise of 1850
OREGON & “54°40’ OR FIGHT!”
Jointly occupied with Britain
Polk campaigns to take all of Oregon
Eventually settles at 49th parallel → avoids war
CALIFORNIA GOLD RUSH (1849)
Gold discovered at Sutter’s Mill
Over 300,000 move to CA in 1 year (“49ers”)
CA quickly meets population requirement for statehood
Applies as free state → Compromise of 1850
PRACTICE ID: Manifest Destiny
Who: Coined by John O’Sullivan
What: Idea that U.S. was destined to expand coast-to-coast
When: 1840s
Where: Across the North American continent
Why: Economic opportunity, racial superiority, political pride
Effect: Fueled war with Mexico, Native displacement, slavery conflict
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UNIT 8: Road to the Civil War (DETAILED)
Core Questions
How did repeated compromises over slavery break down?
What did popular sovereignty actually lead to?
How did the North and South react differently to new laws and court cases?
KEY EVENTS + EXPLANATIONS
Compromise of 1850
Context: After the Mexican-American War (1848), U.S. gained huge new territories → debate over whether they’d allow slavery.
What it Did:
CA admitted as free state (upsets balance)
Fugitive Slave Act passed (angers North)
Slave trade banned in D.C.
Pop. sovereignty in Utah & NM
People: Henry Clay = architect; Stephen Douglas helps push it through.
Effect: Short-term peace → long-term division.
Why It Mattered: Set precedent for future debates; showed that Congress couldn’t solve sectionalism.
Fugitive Slave Act (1850)
Federal gov. required citizens to return escaped slaves — even in free states.
Commissioners paid more to rule against Black defendants (biased courts)
North responds: passes Personal Liberty Laws to resist.
Know This: This law radicalized many Northerners. It made slavery feel personal to them.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)
Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel
Sold 300k+ copies in first year → emotional anti-slavery message.
Focused on family separations and humanizing enslaved people.
Name to Know: Abraham Lincoln allegedly called her the “little lady who started this great war.”
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
Stephen Douglas wants transcontinental railroad → needs KS/NE organized.
Repeals Missouri Compromise → lets settlers vote on slavery (popular sovereignty).
Effect: Pro/anti-slavery forces flood Kansas → Bleeding Kansas
Know This: “Popular sovereignty” sounds democratic but led to voter fraud and violence.
Why It Mattered: This act destroyed the Whig Party, split the Democrats, and launched the Republican Party.
Bleeding Kansas (1855–56)
Proslavery “border ruffians” cross from Missouri to rig elections
Two rival governments: pro-slavery Lecompton vs. free-state Topeka
John Brown kills 5 at Pottawatomie Creek
Bleeding Sumner (1856)
Senator Charles Sumner gives anti-slavery speech → attacks SC Senator Butler
Butler’s cousin, Preston Brooks, beats Sumner on Senate floor
North: shocked; South: celebrates
Why It Mattered: Symbol of how politics itself broke down. Violence replaced debate.
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
Background: Scott sues for freedom after living in free territory.
SCOTUS ruling:
Scott can’t sue — not a citizen
Slaves = property → Congress can’t ban slavery in territories
Chief Justice: Roger Taney (pro-slavery majority)
Name to Know: Roger B. Taney — delivers one of the worst decisions in Supreme Court history
Know This: Lincoln wins without winning a single Southern state.
Result: Southern secession begins → Civil War.
Effect: Missouri Compromise = unconstitutional → enrages North → fractures Democrats
Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)
Debated slavery in the territories → esp. Kansas
Douglas: Freeport Doctrine = pop. sovereignty still works
Lincoln: Slavery is wrong morally and economically, should not expand
Helps Lincoln rise to national fame
John Brown + Harpers Ferry (1859)
Brown leads raid on federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, VA
Hopes to start a slave rebellion → captured and hanged
North: Some see him as a martyr
South: Sees it as terrorism
Election of 1860
Lincoln (Republican, stop slavery’s expansion)
Douglas (Northern Democrat, pop. sovereignty)
Breckinridge (Southern Democrat, protect slavery)
Bell (Constitutional Union)
PRACTICE ID: DRED SCOTT DECISION
Who: Dred Scott, enslaved man; Roger Taney, Chief Justice
What: Landmark Supreme Court ruling
When: 1857
Where: U.S. Supreme Court
Why: Scott argued living in free territory = freedom
How: Court ruled that no Black person could be a citizen; Congress couldn’t ban slavery
Effect: Outraged the North, invalidated Missouri Compromise, destroyed compromise spirit → fueled Republican rise
Constitution Tie-In (For Essay)
This unit connects to the Constitution's failure to solve sectional tensions:
Pop. sovereignty → unclear power balance between states and federal gov
Fugitive Slave Act vs. Personal Liberty Laws → states' rights clash
Dred Scott → court contradicts federal authority to restrict slavery
Shows the limits of compromise under the Constitution’s framework
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UNIT 9: The Civil War (1861–1865)
KEY QUESTIONS
Why did the Civil War break out, and how was it different from past conflicts?
What were the military strategies of both sides?
How did the war affect Americans — soldiers, civilians, enslaved people, women?
THE WAR BEGINS
Immediate Cause: Secession
Election of 1860: Lincoln wins without carrying a Southern state
South Carolina secedes → followed by 10 more
Confederate States of America formed, led by Jefferson Davis
Fort Sumter (April 1861)
Union fort in SC attacked by Confederate forces
Lincoln refuses to abandon → Confederacy fires
War begins → Upper South (VA, NC, TN, AR) secede afterward
Why It Mattered: Unified North around preserving the Union; made war inevitable
CAUSES & COMPARISONS
What Made the Civil War Different?
Modern weaponry (rifled muskets, railroads, telegraph)
Mass conscription and total war (civilians affected)
Slavery = central issue → moral and political battle
Union Advantages
Population (2x South), industry, RR network, navy
More money + established gov’t
Confederate Advantages
Home field advantage, military leadership
Defensive war = easier
STRATEGIES
Union (North) “Anaconda Plan” (by Gen. Winfield Scott):
Naval blockade
Control Mississippi River
Capture Richmond
Confederacy (South)
Defensive strategy
King Cotton Diplomacy: hoped Europe would support South due to cotton supply
Offensive when possible (Lee invades North twice)
MAJOR BATTLES (by year)
1861
Battle of Bull Run (Manassas): First major battle → Confederate victory
Shocks North → war won’t be quick
1862
Battle of Antietam (MD): Bloodiest single day in U.S. history
Union “victory” → lets Lincoln issue Emancipation Proclamation
Ends hope of British aid for Confederacy
Shiloh (TN): High casualties → shocks nation
New Orleans: Union gains key port
1863
Battle of Gettysburg (PA): Lee’s second invasion fails
Turning point in East
Ends Confederate hope of Northern victory
Vicksburg (MS): Union gains full control of Mississippi
Splits Confederacy in half
Gettysburg Address: Lincoln redefines war = fight for democracy + equality
1864
Atlanta Campaign (Gen. Sherman)
Fall of Atlanta helps Lincoln win re-election
March to the Sea: Sherman burns everything from Atlanta → Savannah
Total war strategy
1865
Appomattox Court House: Lee surrenders to Grant (April 9)
Generous terms → soldiers go home
WAR ON THE HOMEFRONT
Emancipation Proclamation (Jan 1863)
Freed slaves only in rebelling states
Shifts war to moral cause
Encourages enslaved people to flee
Allows Black men to enlist in Union army
Women
Nurses (Clara Barton → founds Red Cross)
Take over farms, businesses, roles at home
New independence for women, but not equality
African Americans
Enlist in Union army post-1863
54th Massachusetts → first Black regiment
Faced lower pay, racism, and brutality if captured
Dissent in the North
Copperheads: Anti-war Northern Democrats
NYC Draft Riots (1863): Poor whites riot against draft + Black workers
Know This: Rich could pay $300 to avoid draft → class resentment
LINCOLN’S ASSASSINATION
Shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford’s Theatre (April 14, 1865)
Booth = Confederate sympathizer
KEY LEADERS
Union Confederacy
Abraham Lincoln Jefferson Davis
Ulysses S. Grant Robert E. Lee
William Tecumseh Sherman Stonewall Jackson
George Meade
PRACTICE ID: Emancipation Proclamation
Who: Abraham Lincoln
What: Executive order freeing slaves in Confederate states
When: Issued Jan 1, 1863
Where: Affected only rebelling areas
Why: To weaken South, gain moral high ground
Effect: Changed war aim → from union to abolition; allowed Black enlistment
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UNIT 10: Reconstruction (1865–1877)
KEY QUESTIONS
What were the goals of Reconstruction and how did they differ by group?
How did each branch of government shape the process?
Why did Reconstruction ultimately fail to protect Black Americans?
PLANS FOR RECONSTRUCTION
Lincoln’s Plan (10% Plan)
Lenient: 10% of voters in a Southern state had to swear loyalty
Offered pardons to most Confederates
Wanted quick reunion
Name to Know: Lincoln prioritized national unity over punishment
Johnson’s Plan (1865)
Similar to Lincoln → very lenient
Former Confederates could rejoin gov with loyalty oath
Did NOT protect freedmen
Pardoned many Confederate leaders
Why It Mattered: Allowed white Southern elites back into power → led to Black Codes
Radical Republican Plan (Congress)
Wanted to punish the South, protect rights of freedmen
Led by Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner
Passed Reconstruction Acts:
Divided South into 5 military districts
Required new constitutions + ratification of 14th Amendment to rejoin Union
MAJOR AMENDMENTS
Amendment What It Did Problem
13th (1865) Abolished slavery Didn’t guarantee equality
14th (1868) Citizenship + equal protection Loopholes + weak enforcement
15th (1870) Black male suffrage Ignored by South via restrictions
JOHNSON VS. CONGRESS
Black Codes
Southern laws that restricted Black freedom
No voting, jury service, land ownership
Created quasi-slavery
Freedmen’s Bureau (1865)
Gave food, housing, education, medical aid to freed slaves + poor whites
Built schools, helped with labor contracts
Underfunded, under attack
Conflict Escalates
Congress overrides many of Johnson’s vetoes
Johnson fires Secretary of War → violates Tenure of Office Act
**Impeachment of Johnson (
1868): The House of Representatives impeaches Johnson, largely due to his opposition to Reconstruction policies and his attempts to undermine congressional authority.
UNIT 11: The Gilded Age (1870–1900)
KEY QUESTIONS
What fueled America’s industrial revolution?
How did business tycoons and workers respond to new economic systems?
How did different groups react to immigration and urban growth?
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: FUEL & INNOVATION
Causes: Abundant natural resources, cheap labor, new tech, pro-business gov’t policies
Key Inventions
Transcontinental Railroad (1869): Linked East and West → national market
Bessemer Process: Mass production of steel → skyscrapers, bridges
Electric light, telephone, typewriter
Mass Production: Assembly line, interchangeable parts → cheaper goods but deskilling
BIG BUSINESS + LABOR
Captains of Industry vs. Robber Barons
Captains: innovative, philanthropists (Carnegie, Rockefeller)
Robber Barons: exploited workers, corrupt (Vanderbilt, Gould)
Business Strategies
Horizontal Integration: control one step of production (Rockefeller — oil refining)
Vertical Integration: control all steps of production (Carnegie — steel)
Trusts + Holding Companies: eliminate competition → monopolies
Social Darwinism
“Survival of the fittest” applied to business
Justified wealth inequality → laissez-faire policies
Gospel of Wealth
Carnegie: wealthy have duty to give back to society
Libraries, education
Labor Unions
Knights of Labor: skilled + unskilled, women + Black workers
American Federation of Labor (AFL): skilled, white men only
Goals: better wages, hours, conditions
Strikes
Haymarket Riot (1886): bomb kills police → union blamed, weakens Knights
Homestead Strike (1892): Carnegie Steel → violence, state militia ends strike
Gov’t Response: Usually sided with business (used injunctions, troops)
PRACTICE ID: Standard Oil
Who: John D. Rockefeller
What: giant oil monopoly controlling 90% of U.S. refining
When: late 1800s
Where: Cleveland, Ohio
Why: eliminate competition, lower costs, increase efficiency
Effect: model for trusts, target for reformers, showed era’s business consolidation
IMMIGRATION & URBANIZATION
“New” Immigrants (1880–1920)
S. + E. Europe (Italians, Poles, Russians, Jews)
Push Factors: poverty, persecution
Pull Factors: jobs, opportunity, freedom
Settlement Patterns
Ethnic neighborhoods (Little Italy, Chinatown)
Tenements: overcrowded, unsanitary apartments
Nativism
Anti-immigrant sentiment
Blamed for crime, poverty, job competition
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
Bans Chinese laborers from entering U.S.
Example of nativist legislation
Social Gospel Movement
Christians address social problems (poverty, inequality)
Settlement houses (Jane Addams’ Hull House)
Political Machines
Corrupt city gov’ts (Tammany Hall in NYC)
Provide services to immigrants in exchange for votes
PRACTICE ID: Chinese Exclusion Act
Who: U.S. Congress
What: Law banning Chinese laborers
When: 1882
Where: United States
Why: Nativist fears of job competition, cultural difference
Effect: Sharp drop in Chinese immigration, example of discrimination
UNIT 12: American Imperialism (1890–1914)
KEY QUESTIONS
What motivated U.S. imperialism?
How did the Spanish-American War expand U.S. power?
What were the main arguments for and against imperialism?
MOTIVES FOR IMPERIALISM
Economic
Need for raw materials and new markets
Industrial overproduction
Political
Competition with Europe
Desire for military bases
Ideological
Social Darwinism
White Man’s Burden: duty to civilize “inferior” races
Missionary impulse
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898)
Causes
Cuban Revolution: Cubans revolt against Spain
Yellow Journalism: sensational news exaggerates Spanish atrocities
De Lôme Letter: Spanish diplomat insults McKinley
Sinking of the Maine: U.S. battleship explodes in Havana harbor
Course of the War
U.S. defeats Spain quickly
Key battles: Manila Bay (Philippines), San Juan Hill (Cuba)
“Splendid Little War” (John Hay)
Treaty of Paris (1898)
U.S. gains: Cuba (sort of), Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines
Cuba = independent, but Platt Amendment gives U.S. naval base and intervention rights
Philippine-American War (1899–1902)
Filipinos resist U.S. rule → brutal war
Emilio Aguinaldo leads fight for independence
Why It Mattered: U.S. becomes a major world power → debates over expansion
DEBATES OVER IMPERIALISM
Anti-Imperialist League
Against annexation of Philippines
Violated American principles of self-government
Led by: Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie
Pro-Imperialists
U.S. had duty to civilize
Needed new markets and resources
OTHER EXAMPLES OF U.S. INTERVENTION
Hawaii
U.S. overthrows Queen Liliuokalani
Annexed in 1898
Panama Canal
TR supports Panamanian revolt vs. Colombia
U.S. gains rights to build canal
Roosevelt Corollary (to Monroe Doctrine)
U.S. = “international police power” in Latin America
Justified interventions to stabilize governments
Dollar Diplomacy (Taft)
Use economic power to influence Latin America
PRACTICE ID: Sinking of the Maine
Who: U.S. vs. Spain
What: U.S. battleship exploded in Havana harbor
When: 1898
Where: Cuba
Why: Cause still debated, likely accidental
Effect: Sparked Spanish-American War, “Remember the Maine!”