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1. Classical Conditioning (CC)

• Ivan Pavlov (early 1900s)

• Definition: A neutral stimulus elicits a response after being associated with a stimulus that naturally produces that response.

• Key Features:

• Learning associations between two stimuli.

• The response is involuntary or automatic.

Types of Conditioned Responses

1. Physiological: Salivation, changes in heart rate, etc.

2. Muscular Reflexes: Involuntary muscle movements, flinching, etc.

3. Emotions: Mood states like happiness, sadness, anger, etc.

4. Attitudes: Automatic judgments (likes/dislikes).

Example of Classical Conditioning

• Scenario: A dog hears the crinkling sound of a food bag and learns to associate it with being fed.

• Before Conditioning:

• Crinkling sound (NS) → No response

• Food (US) → Dog runs to kitchen (UR)

• After Conditioning:

• Crinkling sound (CS) → Dog runs to kitchen (CR)

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning

• Little Albert Experiment (1920): Demonstrated that emotional responses (e.g., fear) can be classically conditioned.

Classical Conditioning in Advertising

• Associating a product (NS) with positive emotions (US → UR) to create a conditioned response (CS → CR).

Key Concepts in Classical Conditioning

Generalization

• Stimuli similar to the CS can also trigger the CR.

• Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivated when other body parts were stimulated, though the response was strongest when the original conditioned area was stimulated.

Discrimination

• The ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli.

• If a stimulus is too different from the CS, it won’t produce the CR.

Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery

• Extinction: CR disappears over time if the US is not present.

• Spontaneous Recovery: An extinguished CR may reappear after a rest period.

Operant Conditioning

• Key Difference from Classical Conditioning:

• Classical: Learning associations between stimuli (involuntary responses).

• Operant: Learning associations between behavior and consequences (voluntary responses).

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• Behaviors with favorable consequences → More likely to occur.

• Behaviors with unfavorable consequences → Less likely to occur.

• Example: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box (cats learning to escape for food).

Reinforcement (Increases behavior)

1. Positive Reinforcement:

• Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Example: A dog gets a treat for sitting.

2. Negative Reinforcement:

• Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Example: Taking painkillers to stop a headache.

Punishment (Decreases behavior)

1. Positive Punishment:

• Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Example: Getting a speeding ticket.

2. Negative Punishment:

• Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Example: Losing TV privileges for bad behavior.

Practice Examples (Identify PR, NR, PP, or NP)

• Tom loses 10 points for a late assignment. → NP

• Janet gets a high five after scoring a basket. → PR

• John smokes weed to reduce pain. → NR

• Jimmy gets slapped for a sexist comment. → PP

Key Questions

• Do reinforcements need to occur every time to maintain behavior?

• How does reinforcement contribute to superstitious behavior?

Shaping Behavior

• Definition: Reinforcing closer approximations of a desired behavior.

• Used to teach complex behaviors in small steps.

• B.F. Skinner (1930s)

Factors Influencing Reinforcement Effectiveness

1. Magnitude of the reinforcer

2. Immediacy of the reinforcement

3. Motivation of the learner

Cognitive Learning Theories

Latent Learning & Cognitive Maps

• Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately visible until a reason to demonstrate it arises.

• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial layouts (e.g., rats learning mazes).

Observational Learning (Modeling)

• Learning by observing others and their consequences.

• “Monkey see, monkey do”

• Key Influences:

• Models in media, family, school, etc.

• Learning gestures, values, social skills.

Albert Bandura & Bobo Doll Experiment

• Demonstrated how children imitate aggressive behavior seen in adults.

Media & Learning

• Does violent media increase aggression?

• Bandura’s Research: TV violence influences aggression.

• Prosocial vs. Antisocial Effects:

• Exposure to positive behaviors can encourage prosocial behavior.

Summary

• Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations (involuntary).

• Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (voluntary).

• Cognitive Learning: Emphasizes thought processes in learning.

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.

• Reinforcement & Punishment: Influence behavior frequency.

• Media Exposure: Can shape behavior positively or negatively.

What is Memory?

• Definition: The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

• Memory is measured in three ways:

1. Recall: Retrieving information learned earlier (e.g., remembering the names of the seven dwarfs without a list).

2. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from a list (e.g., choosing the correct names of the seven dwarfs from a group of names).

3. Relearning: Learning something faster the second time.

Memory Models

A. The Information Processing Model

1. Encoding: Getting information into the memory system.

2. Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.

3. Retrieval: Getting stored information out of memory.

Dual-Track Memory

• Effortful Processing: Requires attention and effort (e.g., studying for an exam).

• Creates explicit memories (facts, events).

• Example: Re-reading a textbook page because you daydreamed the first time.

• Automatic Processing: Happens unconsciously.

• Creates implicit memories (skills, conditioned associations).

• Examples:

• Space: Remembering where an image was in a book.

• Skills: Riding a bike, dribbling a basketball.

• Sequence of events: Knowing what happened throughout your day.

B. The Three-Stage Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968 & 1971)

1. Sensory Memory

• Very brief memory storage of sensory information.

• Types:

• Iconic (visual): Lasts ~0.5 to 4 seconds.

• Echoic (auditory): Lasts ~3-4 seconds.

• Information moves to short-term memory if attention is paid to it; otherwise, it is forgotten.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory

• Holds 7 ± 2 pieces of information at a time.

• Information lasts 20-30 seconds without rehearsal.

• Can be improved using:

• Chunking: Grouping information (e.g., phone numbers).

• Mnemonics: Memory aids (e.g., acronyms).

• Hierarchies: Organizing into broad categories.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

• Duration: Can last from minutes to a lifetime.

C. Levels of Processing Model

• The depth at which information is processed affects retention.

• Shallow Processing: Basic encoding (appearance or sound of words); leads to poor retention.

• Deep Processing: Semantic encoding (meaning-based); leads to strong retention.

• Examples: Applying, analyzing, making information personally meaningful.

Memory Retrieval

Retrieval Cues

• Priming: Unconscious activation of related associations.

• Retrieval Cue: Any stimulus that helps recall information (e.g., sounds, sights, smells).

Context-Dependent Memory

• Memory is better recalled when in the same environment as when it was learned.

• Example: Words learned underwater were recalled better underwater.

State-Dependent Memory

• Memory is better recalled when in the same physiological or emotional state as when it was learned.

• Mood-Congruent Memory:

• Being in a bad mood → More likely to recall negative memories.

• Being in a good mood → More likely to recall positive memories.

Serial Position Effect

• Primacy Effect: Remembering items at the beginning of a list.

• Recency Effect: Remembering items at the end of a list.

• Application: When studying multiple chapters, the middle information is hardest to remember.

Forgetting

Forgetting happens due to three major reasons:

A. Encoding Failure

• Information never enters long-term memory.

• Example: Not knowing how many eyelets are on your shoe because you never paid attention to it.

B. Storage Decay

• Memories fade over time, especially in the first 48 hours.

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting, then levels off.

C. Retrieval Failure

• Memory is stored but cannot be accessed.

• Types of Interference:

• Proactive Interference: Older learning disrupts new learning.

• Example: Struggling to remember a new phone number because of the old one.

• Retroactive Interference: New learning disrupts old learning.

• Example: Forgetting your old address after moving.

Memory Construction Errors

A. Reconsolidation

• Every time we recall a memory, we slightly alter it before storing it again.

• Memories are not exact copies of reality.

B. Misinformation Effect

• New information after an event can alter the original memory.

• Example: If a teacher suggests something after witnessing an event, students may remember it incorrectly.

C. Imagination Effect

• Imagining an event creates a false memory.

• Example: A child may believe they went to Disneyland when they only saw pictures of it.

D. Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution)

• Remembering the information but not where it came from.

• Examples:

• Knowing the Nile is the longest river but not remembering how you learned that.

• Thinking you experienced something when you only dreamed it.

False Memories & Eyewitness Testimony

• False memories are common and can be implanted.

• Hypnosis does NOT recover repressed memories.

• Many wrongful convictions are due to false eyewitness identification (see The Innocence Project).

Summary of Key Concepts

1. Memory Models:

• Information Processing Model (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval).

• Three-Stage Model (Sensory, Short-Term, Long-Term Memory).

• Levels of Processing (Shallow vs. Deep Processing).

2. Retrieval & Forgetting:

• Context-Dependent & State-Dependent Memory.

• Serial Position Effect.

• Causes of Forgetting (Encoding Failure, Storage Decay, Retrieval Failure).

3. Memory Errors:

• Reconsolidation, Misinformation Effect, Imagination Effect, Source Amnesia.

4. Eyewitness Testimony & False Memories:

• Memories are reconstructed, not replayed.

• False memories can be unintentionally implanted.