bartlett

Bartlett (1932) - War of the Ghosts Study

Introduction

Schema theory suggests that memory is influenced by prior knowledge and expectations. Reconstructive memory refers to the process by which memories are actively reconstructed rather than passively retrieved, leading to distortions over time. This study is relevant to the cognitive approach as it explores how schemas influence memory recall. It also has applications in the sociocultural approach, as it examines how cultural background affects cognitive processing. This essay will evaluate schema theory and the reliability of memory with reference to Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study.

Theory

Schema theory proposes that memories are actively reconstructed using existing mental frameworks. Reconstructive memory suggests that recall is influenced by cultural and personal experiences rather than being an exact replica of events. Bartlett hypothesized that unfamiliar cultural content would lead to distortions in memory due to schema processing.

Evidence

The aim of the study was to investigate how prior knowledge (schemas) affects memory recall of an unfamiliar story. The participants were British individuals unfamiliar with Native American culture. They heard the Native American legend War of the Ghosts, which contained unfamiliar names, concepts, and structure. They were divided into two conditions: repeated reproduction and serial reproduction. In the repeated reproduction condition, participants recalled the story multiple times over days, weeks, months, or years. In the serial reproduction condition, participants recalled the story and passed it on to another person, like a game of “Chinese whispers.

The study found that distortions occurred in both conditions, showing that memory is not fixed but reconstructive. Three patterns of distortion were observed: assimilation, leveling, and sharpening. Assimilation occurred when participants altered details to fit their cultural expectations (e.g., changing unfamiliar concepts to familiar ones). Leveling happened when story details were omitted, leading to a shorter version. Sharpening occurred when participants changed the order of events and added emotions/details to make the story more coherent. While the general theme remained intact, unfamiliar elements were changed to align with participants’ schemas.

Application

The study demonstrates that memory is not an exact recording of events but is actively reconstructed based on schemas. This helps explain memory distortions in eyewitness testimony, where prior knowledge or expectations may alter recall. The findings also support the idea that cultural background influences memory and storytelling.

Criticism

There were methodological issues in the study. There was a lack of standardized procedures participants were not given clear instructions to recall accurately, and the timing of recall varied. These issues made the findings difficult to replicate. While the study has high ecological validity, as recalling stories is a common real-world memory task, it lacks internal validity due to uncontrolled variables, such as different retention intervals. Additionally, the study assumed that the Native American story would be unfamiliar to all British participants but did not account for individual differences in exposure to such narratives. It is also possible that the memory distortions may have resulted from general forgetting rather than schema processing.

Unanswered Questions

One unanswered question is whether a Native American group would recall the story differently compared to the British participants. Another question is whether certain schemas lead to greater distortions than others, or whether a more familiar but still culturally distinct story would lead to similar distortions.

Practical Use

Understanding reconstructive memory can help improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony in legal settings. Findings from this study can also be applied in education to enhance learning and memory retention by using familiar examples.

Counterarguments

Other studies, such as Loftus and Palmer (1974), provide stronger experimental evidence for memory distortion through leading questions, suggesting that misinformation may be a greater factor than schema processing. Not all memories are distorted by schemas—some emotionally significant or highly rehearsed memories (flashbulb memories) are recalled accurately over time.

Conclusion

Bartlett’s study supports schema theory by demonstrating that memory is reconstructive and influenced by prior knowledge. However, the study’s methodological limitations raise questions about the reliability of its findings. The research has important applications in understanding eyewitness testimony, cultural influences on memory, and the role of schemas in everyday recall. While the study remains influential, further research is needed to refine the understanding of schema-driven memory distortions.

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