Cultural Transformations in Science (Ways of the World 3rd Edition)
Birth of Modern Science
-Scientific Revolution: mid- 16th to early 18th century
-Knowledge is acquired through rational thinking based on evidence
-Altered ideas of the humankind’s faith
-During this time, the authority and teachings of the church was questioned
-Legitimized inequalities amongst the people
-becomes open to those who accepted it
-Europe’s development provided ideal conditions to advance science
-Legal revolution was based on cooperation
-Autonomy of emerging universities
-Study of natural order is separate from philosophy and theology
-Great affiliation with the universities
In the Islamic World
-Quranic studies and religious law were amongst the most discussed
-Philosophy and natural science were in great question
-It was believed that Quran held all wisdom and science
-Western Europe was in the state to draw from other cultures (especially Islam)
-Led to the birth of European philosophy (1000- 1500)
-During the 16th- 18th centuries, Europe becomes center of the new exchange of information
-Makes room for new conceptions and ideas
-The ground of modern science was made from the uncertainties of established views
-Girolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician, believed ‘certainties will be exchanged for uncertainties”
-Reformation also pays contribution to the cultural climate in the sense of challenging it
-Encourages mass literacy, “and affirmation of secular possessions”
Science as a Cultural Revolution
-Before such revolution, views of the world derived from Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy
-Medieval thinkers believed the Earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around it; this matches the views of the catholic church
-The scientific revolution challenges this understanding of the universe
-It begins with Polish mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus who claimed in the “middle of all things lies the sun” and everything else revolves around it
-To add on, some claimed that there were other inhabited worlds where other humans existed
-Early 17th Century: Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, proposed the idea that planets followed elliptical orbits
-Italian Galileo comes up with an improved telescope
-Some thinkers begin to believe that humans are only a speck of the universe
-Culmination came in Sir Isaac Newton’s work, an Englishman
-He formulates the laws of motion and mechanics
-Brings upon the idea of universal gravitation
-Universe was not seen to function by super- natural forces but as the principles discovered by scientists
-Dissections enable documents to explain the human body with mere accuracy
-Almost all males in such advancements and ideas
Science and Enlightenments
-Scientific revolution spreads to more people during the 18th century
-The new approaches of knowledge was not just seen in the physical universe but in human society as well
-If humans could come up with laws that support the universe, it was believe that they could do the same for human society
-In this case, “it might govern itself more effectively”
-All thinkers believed in the power to alter human society
-This included the question of women’s role in society
-“Human virtue and improvement” must be checked, inequality between the races
Looking Ahead: Science in the 19th Century
-Perspectives of the Enlightenment continued to be challenged by the development of science
-Charles Darwin: laid out an argument that was in constant change and the struggle of survival led to creation of new species
-Karl Max: described the evolution of human civilization by using historical research
-Sigmund Freud: applies scientific methods on the operation of the human mind and emotions
-The modern alterations have greatly changed from the original Scientific revolution that began in the 12thcentury.