Qualitative Research

At the end of this session you will be able to:

•Discuss the types of research question for which qualitative data are especially suited

•Develop an awareness of the different types of qualitative data collection and their relevance to practice research

•Discuss methods of sampling for qualitative studies and how they differ from quantitative approaches

•Discuss the practicalities and problems associated with collecting qualitative data

What is qualitative research?

• collects and analyses words not numbers

• aims to understand the world from the participants POV:

  • experiences

  • knowledge and understanding

  • meaning

  • explanation

Key features:

They are good for looking into:

• understanding ‘lay’ or clinical behaviour

  • e.g. what triggers people to actually see a doctor

• participants perceptions of quality or appropriateness

  • views on new services/policies

• organisational culture/managing change

  • why aren’t the research findings implemented

• evaluating complex policy initiatives

• ‘taken for granted’ phenomena

Qualitative data collection methods

• observation

• interviews

• focus groups

Observation collection method:

• data collected as events occur at study site

• observe and record details of events

  • e.g. Observation of pharmacists and counter assistants providing OTC medicines advice: Do they use WWHAM questions? How do they handle situations where customer does not engage?

• systematic detailed observation of talk and behaviour in it’s natural environment

Types of observation:

• participant: immersion of researcher in social setting - not very common in health research

• non-participant: researcher not participating

  • discrete - no interference with normal activity

  • first hand - not reliant on individual report of behaviour

  • hawthorne effect - validity affected by observer presence

Types of research data collected:

• structured: observe to a data collection form (also known as a schedule)

  • obtain frequency, time, duration and who was involved etc

• semi-structured: prompts to collect data on pre-specified concepts with space of open-ended notes

• unstructured: record behaviour of participants and develop narrative accounts

The Need to Pilot:

• need to gather the right data for the research question but must be workable

• pilot locations: can you see, hear? is it unobstructive?

Limitations

• behavioural changes if people know they are being observed

• observer bias

  • see what you wanna see

  • become tired/bored

• assimilating into the group - adopt their norms

Observation interview focus groups

Structured

• quantitative questionnaire

• researcher-led

• closed questions/pre-coded/short answers

Semi-structured or unstructured

• captures data about attitudes, behaviour, views

• participant led, standardised, minimal variation, keeping to question order

• open questions first, focus if needed/lengthy answers

• interview schedule topic guide

Key Skills for interviewing

• active listening

• open questions

• probing

Active Listening

• give the participants your complete attention:

  • shut out distractions

  • hear what they are saying

  • show attention

  • observe body language

• audio record to allow for you to focus on what is being said

Open questions:

• 5Ws and How

• Cannot be answered in just a few words

• short and clear questions

• neutral non-leading questions

Probing questions:

• participants’ first answers rarely tell us the whole story

• probes are short, open questions used to elicit more data

• an essential for getting the complex details that an interview should give

Types of probe

The topic guide

An agenda for conducting the interview. Has topics and issues to cover

Features of the topic guide

• flexible and interactive

• can adapt questioning and order to meet circumstances

• gently ease respondent from social to deeper level

• progress from the general to specific

• can insert prompts and probes

• use respondent’s language

The topic guide:

• introduction - study objectives and purpose, duration, confidentiality

• topics and sub topics - open questions and probe, begin easily and then lead to more difficult questions before ending with easier questions again

• revise after pilot if needed

Phone/Online interviews

• little evidence that face-to-face interviews

• may be shorter

• practical - cheaper and more convenient

• helps overcome reservation

• anonymous

• lack of non-verbal cues - cannot see distress/anxiety

Conducting a good interview

• clear objectives - plan ahead

• comprehensive and familiar topic guide

• good questioning

• pace the interview

• avoid interrupting

• active listening

• comfortability

• suitable location

Focus Groups

• interaction between respondents

• enables people to explore and clarify their views in ways that would be less easy in one-to-one interview

• stimulates wide-ranging discussion and generates comprehensive list of issues

• can produce patterns of interaction

Size:

• 6 to 8 people

• over-inviting is smart since some people may not turn up

The researchers:

• conducted by a moderator/facilitator

  • responsible for running the session and steering the discussion

  • achieving participation from everyone

• second researcher

  • doesn’t take part in discussion

  • takes notes and assists with smooth running and admin

  • monitors who is contributing

  • audio recorder

  • refreshments

Conducting a focus group:

• introduce research team

• thanks for coming and taking part

• goals

• ground rules

• format

Topic guide:

• start recorder and launch into the topic guide

• encourage participants to clarify their view

• explore why people think that they do

• explore differences between members

• draw to end

Level of facilitator involvement

• not too intrusive

• not too strcutred

• allow respondents to steer but keep to focus

• respond to points raised that are particularly relevant to the research

• minimal intervention unless

  • group is struggling

  • remind people to talk one at a time

  • don’t allow people to dominate

Ethical Considerations

• people may get upset/angry

• people may want to stop/leave

• cannot guarantee confidentiality

Focus group strengths:

• Can highlight cultural values or group norms

• Does not discriminate against people who can’t read or write

• Participation from those reluctant to be interviewed 1:1

• Can encourage contributions from those who think they have nothing to say

Focus group weaknesses:

• Reticent speakers may not offer views

• Reluctance to express opposing or sensitive views

• Dominant speakers can narrow and direct content

• Less opportunity to explore individual views

• Risk of poor turn out

• More complicated & expensive to organise

• Difficult to analyse

Interviews vs Focus Group

Key Terms:

Population: people the study is about

Sampling: drawn from the population

Convenience: easily accessible & ready to participate

Representative: findings applied to wider population

Purposive: individuals that fulfill certain conditions

Sampling:

• purposive

• a form of non-random sampling where the participants are deliberatly selected

Qualitative sample sizes:

Usually small – typically:

•   <50 interviews

•   6-12 focus groups

• Larger samples are unnecessary:

• Aim is to map views, not count them

• Often, sample until you reach saturation

•   No new information or themes are observed in new interviews/focus groups

• Consider how varied your population is