AP Gov Unit 5

🗳 Voting Rights in the Constitution & Legislation

Key Amendments:

• 15th Amendment – Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

• 19th Amendment – Grants women the right to vote.

• 23rd Amendment – Grants residents of D.C. the right to vote for president.

• 24th Amendment – Abolishes poll taxes.

• 26th Amendment – Lowers the voting age to 18.

Major Legislation:

• Civil Rights Act of 1957 – First civil rights legislation since Reconstruction; established the Civil Rights Division in the DOJ.

• Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Banned discriminatory practices in voting and registration.

• Voting Rights Act of 1965 – Prohibited racial discrimination in voting, banned literacy tests, and provided federal oversight.

🧠 Models of Voting Behavior

• Rational-Choice Voting – Voters make decisions based on their own best interest and cost-benefit analysis.

• Retrospective Voting – Judging candidates based on their past performance.

• Prospective Voting – Voting based on future promises and platforms.

• Party-Line Voting – Voting exclusively for candidates of one political party.

🗽 Voter Turnout: Factors & Influence

Individual Choice & State Laws

• Registration laws, voter ID laws, and mail-in voting all affect turnout.

• Political Apathy – Lack of interest in politics.

• Political Efficacy – Belief in one’s ability to influence politics.

• Demographics – Age, education, income, and race all impact turnout.

Linkage Institutions:

• Political Parties – Mobilize and educate voters.

• Interest Groups – Advocate for issues and encourage participation.

• Elections – Formal mechanisms for public participation.

• Media – Informs the public and holds officials accountable.

🏛 Political Parties: Functions & Influence

• Mobilization/Education of Voters – Encourage participation, provide information.

• Party Platforms – Outline policy positions.

  • Democrats – Generally support social programs, environmental regulations, and progressive taxation.

  • Republicans – Generally favor limited government, lower taxes, and strong national defense.

• Candidate Recruitment

• Campaign Management – Fundraising, strategy, and media.

• Legislative Leadership – Committees and party leadership in Congress.

🗳 Critical Elections and Realignments

Critical Elections are pivotal moments in U.S. political history where significant shifts occur in the electorate's support, leading to a transformation in the political landscape. These elections often result in:

• Long-term changes in party dominance.

• Emergence of new coalitions of voters.

• Redefinition of party platforms and policies.

Political Realignments refer to the enduring changes that follow critical elections, where new dominant political coalitions replace old ones, reshaping the party system for decades. 

Notable Examples:

1. 1828 – Jacksonian Democrats: Marked the rise of the Democratic Party under Andrew Jackson, emphasizing the "common man" and expanding suffrage to all white males.

2. 1860 – Emergence of the GOP: Abraham Lincoln's election led to the dominance of the Republican Party and set the stage for the Civil War.

3. 1896 – Industrial Economy Expansion: William McKinley's victory solidified Republican dominance, focusing on industrial growth and gold standard policies.

4. 1932 – New Deal Coalition: Franklin D. Roosevelt's election during the Great Depression brought together diverse groups (urban workers, minorities, southern whites) under the Democratic Party, leading to significant government intervention in the economy.

5. 1968 – Southern Realignment: Richard Nixon's "Southern Strategy" shifted the South's allegiance from Democrats to Republicans, altering the political map significantly.

💵 Campaign Finance & Elections

Key Laws & Cases

• Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) – 1971:

  • Disclosure requirements, limits on contributions, public financing for presidential elections.

  • Created the FEC.

• Buckley v. Valeo (1976) – Upheld contribution limits but struck down limits on candidates spending their own money.

• Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) – 2002 (McCain-Feingold Act):

  • Banned soft money, limited electioneering communications before elections.

Key Terms

• Hard Money – Regulated and disclosed contributions.

• Soft Money – Unregulated money for "party-building."

• Independent Expenditures – Money spent to support candidates without coordination.

• Super PACs – Unlimited spending, can’t coordinate with candidates.

• PACs – Donate to candidates, must follow rules (50 members, register 6 months in advance).

• 501(c)(3) – Nonprofits, cannot engage in politics.

• 501(c)(4) – Social welfare groups, can do limited political activity.

🗳 Election Structures & Third Parties

• Winner-Take-All Voting – Makes it hard for third parties to win.

• Single-Member Districts – One winner per district; hurts smaller parties.

• Ballot Access Laws – Signatures and fees make it harder for independents/third parties.

• Money – Fundraising advantages benefit major parties.

📺 Campaigns in the Media Age

Candidate-Centered Campaigns

• Focus on the individual over party.

• Use of:

  • TV ads

  • Social Media

  • Press narratives

  • Fundraising differences in Safe vs. Toss-up Districts

  • Example: Ossoff vs. Perdue (GA Senate) – $138 million spent

Political Consultants & Strategy

• PR managers, pollsters, ad creators, social media teams.

• AAPC – American Association of Political Consultants.

📰 Media as a Linkage Institution

1st Amendment – Protects Freedom of the Press

• Acts as a check on government power.

Evolution of the Media

• Newspapers → Radio → TV → Cable News → Internet → Social Media

📺 Media Issues Today

The media landscape has evolved dramatically, influencing political participation and public opinion. Key issues include:

1. Cyberpolarization and Echo Chambers

• Cyberpolarization refers to the phenomenon where individuals are exposed predominantly to information that reinforces their existing beliefs, often through algorithm-driven content on digital platforms.

• Echo Chambers are environments where a person encounters only opinions that mirror their own, leading to reinforced beliefs and increased political polarization. 

2. Increase in Media Choices

• The proliferation of media outlets, including 24-hour news channels and online platforms, offers consumers a vast array of choices. While this can lead to a more informed public, it also allows individuals to select sources that align with their biases, potentially limiting exposure to diverse perspectives.

3. Ideologically Centered Programming

• Many media outlets now cater to specific political ideologies, providing content that appeals to particular segments of the population. This trend can deepen divisions and reduce the likelihood of consensus on public issues.

4. Consumer-Driven Media

• Media organizations often prioritize content that attracts the most viewers or readers, sometimes at the expense of journalistic integrity. Sensationalism and clickbait headlines can overshadow substantive reporting, affecting the quality of information available to the public.

5. Credibility of News Sources

• With the rise of misinformation and "fake news," public trust in media has declined. Distinguishing between credible journalism and unreliable sources has become increasingly challenging, impacting the public's ability to make informed decisions.