County Governments in Texas: Structure, Functions, Weaknesses, and Related Local Government Systems
County Governments in Texas: Structure, Functions, and Weaknesses
Introduction to County Governments
Learning Objective: Describe county governments in Texas, including weaknesses and possible reforms.
County government is the oldest type of local government in the United States, adapted from the British county unit.
Existence: Found in all U.S. states except Connecticut (abolished in 1963) and Rhode Island (never needed them).
Nomenclature: Called "parishes" in Louisiana (French influence) and "boroughs" in Alaska.
Number of Counties: Varies significantly among states.
Hawaii and Delaware have the fewest (three each).
Texas has the most ( 254 counties).
Original Intent: Counties were initially designed as subdivisions or "arms" of state government to perform state functions at the local level.
Examples of State Functions at County Level:
Voter registration (often handled by the county tax office or a separate elections department in larger counties).
Issuing marriage licenses, birth certificates, and automobile registrations.
Operating state courts.
Local Services Provided by County Governments:
Variation: Level of services varies by state; some states' counties provide many local services.
Texas Counties: Provide only very limited local services.
Common Services: Road construction and repair, police protection through the sheriff's department.
Services in Some Urban Counties: Operation of hospitals or health units, libraries, and parks.
Contrast with City Governments: In Texas, city governments typically provide most urban services, such as water supply, sewage disposal, planning and zoning, airports, building codes, mass transit, and fire protection. Texas counties, with few exceptions, generally cannot perform these functions.
Resemblance: Texas counties most closely resemble traditional rural county governments, focusing on state functions like recording vital statistics, operating state courts and jails, administering elections, and maintaining roads and bridges.
Specific Powers: Texas counties can help create rural fire protection districts. Harris County, for instance, may assist in combining smaller water and sewer districts into master districts.
Population as a Distinguishing Feature:
Of the 3,194 counties in the United States, most are rural with small populations.
725 U.S. counties have populations of fewer than 10,000.
328 U.S. counties have populations of more than 250,000.
Texas Demographics: 59 percent of the Texas population resides in the 10 largest urban counties (refer to Table 7.3 for specific population figures in 2020).
Table 7.3: The 10 Largest Counties in Texas, 2020
Harris (Houston): 4,738,253
Dallas (Dallas): 2,635,888
Tarrant (Fort Worth): 2,123,347
Bexar (San Antonio): 2,026,823
Travis (Austin): 1,300,503
Collin (Plano): 1,072,069
Denton (Denton): 919,324
Hidalgo (McAllen): 875,200
El Paso (El Paso): 841,286
Fort Bend (Sugar Land): 839,706
Total Population in these 10 counties: 17,372,399
Percentage of total Texas population in these 10 counties: 59
Citizen Identification:
Urban Texans: Tend to identify more with city governments (e.g., residents of Houston, not Harris County) due to direct provision of services like police protection.
Rural Residents: More likely to identify with the county, for similar reasons related to service provision.
Structure of County Government in Texas
Uniformity: All Texas county governments share the same basic structure, regardless of their size.
Fragmented Structure: This structure mirrors the fragmented nature of state government and is best described as a "weak or plural executive."
Elected Officials: Voters elect the heads of major county government departments, reflecting the 1876 constitution writers' distrust of appointive authority and faith in the electorate.
The County Commissioner's Court
Governing Body: This is the legislative body of county government.
Composition: Made up of the constitutional county judge and four county commissioners.
County Judge: Elected at-large countywide.
County Commissioners: Each elected from a single-member district called a "commissioner precinct."
Terms: Officials are elected for four-year terms in partisan elections.
Not a Court: Despite its name, the commissioner's court is a legislative body.
Duties: Passing local ordinances, approving budgets and new programs, and overseeing county government.
Role of the County Judge:
Presides as chair of the commissioner's court.
Participates as a full member in deliberations and has a vote on all matters.
Judicial Duties: The constitution assigns judicial duties to this office, but the occupant does not need to be a licensed attorney; they must be "well informed in the law."
Urban Counties: In urban counties where the state legislature has created county courts of law, the constitutional county judge performs only very limited judicial functions, acting primarily as the county's chief administrative officer.
Malapportionment and "One Person, One Vote":
Historically, commissioner precincts became malapportioned.
Supreme Court Ruling (1968): The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the "one person, one vote" rule applied to these election districts, overturning Midland County's claim that it was a court, not a legislative body. This means each district must have roughly the same number of residents or potential voters.
Constitutionally Prescribed County Officers
Voters elect seven constitutionally prescribed county officers, who act as department heads:
Sheriff
District Attorney
County Attorney
Tax Assessor/Collector
District Clerk
County Clerk
County Treasurer
Other Minor Elected Officials: Some counties also have positions like county surveyor and inspector of hides and wools (created to reduce cattle/sheep theft).
The County Sheriff
Election: Elected countywide for a four-year term.
Role: The chief law enforcement officer for the county.
Deputies: Can appoint deputy sheriffs.
Rural Counties: The sheriff may be the primary law enforcement officer.
Urban Counties: City police departments handle most law enforcement duties; the sheriff's primary duty often becomes operating the county jail.
Dual Role in Smaller Counties: In counties with fewer than 10,000 residents, state law allows the sheriff to also act as the tax assessor/collector—a historical practice linked to Anglo-Saxon law.
Constables: Voters also elect constables, who are law enforcement officers.
Primary Function: Court officers for justice of the peace courts (delivering subpoenas and other court orders).
Additional Duty: May also provide police protection within their precinct.
Focus On: Lupe Valdez, Dallas County Sheriff (2005–2017)
National Prominence: Gained national attention running as the Democratic candidate for Texas governor in 2018.
Pioneer: First Latina and one of the first openly LGBTQ county sheriffs in Texas.
Background: Child of migrant workers, born in San Antonio, spent childhood between San Antonio and Michigan. Became a corrections officer, worked in federal law enforcement, earned a master's degree in criminal justice, and joined the Army Reserve.
Personal Journey: Came to terms with her sexuality as a lesbian, stating her acceptance by God.
Sheriff Tenure:
Elected in 2004 after retiring from the Department of Homeland Security, winning a close general election.
Believed her greatest contribution was "smashing intolerance in the department."
Instrumental in improving jail conditions, leading to the Dallas County Jail passing federal inspection in 2010.
Re-elected in 2008, 2012, and 2016.
Joined the Democratic National Committee and advocated for immigration reform at President Obama's request.
Post-Sheriff Activities: Retired at the end of 2017 to run for governor and remains active in Texas Democratic politics.
The County and District Attorneys
Role: Chief prosecuting attorneys for criminal cases in the county.
County Attorney: Operates at the county court level, prosecuting less serious criminal offenses. Not all counties have this office.
District Attorney: Operates at the district court level, prosecuting major crimes.
The County Tax Assessor/Collector
Revenue Collection: Responsible for collecting revenue for both the state and the county.
Assessment Function: Before 1978, this office also assessed property values for tax purposes. In 1978, this function was transferred to countywide assessment districts (there are 254 such districts in Texas), governed by boards elected by local government bodies.
Current Duties: Primarily collects county property taxes, sells state vehicle licenses and permits, and serves as voter registrar (a carryover from the era of the poll tax).
The County and District Clerk
County Clerk:
Chief Record Keeper: Maintains all property records, issues marriage licenses, birth certificates, and other county records.
Elections: Responsible for conducting elections in all counties.
Voter Registration: While usually handled by the tax assessor/collector, this function has been transferred to the county clerk in some counties.
District Clerk:
Court Official: Primarily maintains court records for county and district courts.
Duties: Schedules cases, maintains records of all court acts and proceedings, keeps records of judgments, administers child support payments, and maintains accounts of funds from fines and fees.
The County Treasurer
Financial Management: Responsible for receiving, maintaining, and disbursing all county funds (general and special revenue).
Liaison: Serves as the chief liaison between the commissioner's court and depository banks.
Record Keeping: Responsible for maintaining records of deposits and withdrawals, and reconciling bank statements.
Investment: May be designated as the chief investment officer for the county.
The County Auditor
Appointment: Appointed by the district judge or judges in the county.
Responsibility: Oversees the collection and disbursement of county funds; reports to the district judge(s).
Requirement: Counties with populations of less than 10,000 are not required to have an auditor.
Budget Officer Role: In larger counties (populations greater than 250,000), the auditor acts as a budget officer, unless the commissioner's court appoints a separate one.
Understanding Impact: Declining Rural Populations
Demographic Trend: Texas has 254 counties, but the majority of the state's population lives in one of the 82 metropolitan or urban counties. Little growth is projected for the remaining 172 rural counties.
Examples: Based on the 2020 U.S. Census, Loving County has only 181 residents, and 16 other Texas counties have fewer than 1,500.
Impact: Declining rural populations challenge county officials' ability to provide adequate services to their citizens.
Weaknesses of County Government in Texas
County government in Texas suffers from major weaknesses that can be categorized into two areas:
Inherent weaknesses stemming from its plural executive form.
Its inability to effectively address problems in urban areas.
Inherent Weaknesses in the Plural Executive Form
Historical Context: The plural executive structure, a product of the nineteenth century, reflects a general distrust of centralized executive authority.
Lack of Centralized Authority: Elected officials often act quite independently of each other.
Limited Commissioner's Court Control: The county commissioner's court's control over department heads is primarily limited to budgetary matters.
Once a budget is approved, elected officials retain significant independent decision-making power.
Staffing and Professionalism:
Elected officials hire their own staffs, leading to dramatic personnel changes after each election (e.g., new sheriffs hiring new deputies).
This "patronage" or "spoils" system can result in a less professional staff.
Electoral Imperfections: Elections are imperfect tools for determining candidate qualifications, meaning voters do not always select the most competent administrators.
The appointment of department heads is generally more likely to result in the selection of competent persons.
A lack of professionalism and competence is a frequently cited problem with officials in some counties.
Inefficiency in Road Repair:
In most (201 of 254) Texas counties, each county commissioner is responsible for road repair within their precinct.
This leads to four separate road crews, often resulting in duplication, inefficiencies, and the potential for commissioners to use crews to reward political supporters.
Design Mismatch: County government was designed for and functions adequately in rural areas but has significant weaknesses in large urban counties.
Inability to Provide Urban Services
Demand for Services: Dense urban populations require services (water, sewer, zoning) that are unnecessary in rural areas.
Legal Restrictions: State law typically prohibits county governments from providing even basic city-like services.
Harris County Exception: In the 1999 legislative session, Harris County received limited authority to help form "master" water and sewer districts by consolidating smaller suburban districts.
Urban Fringe Residents: Citizens living on the edges of cities must either provide these services themselves or form other governments (like water districts).
Garbage Collection: Increasingly a problem in urban fringe areas.
Residents often contract with private collectors.
Some counties assist by providing collection centers, often privately operated.
Fire Protection:
Counties often help rural residents establish volunteer fire departments but cannot operate fire departments themselves.
This leads to a lack of coordination and generally lower standards compared to full-time city fire departments.
Contracts with cities for fire protection have declined as the state has made it easier to form and finance rural fire districts.
Lack of Ordinance Authority
Differential Authority:
City Governments: Can pass any ordinance not expressly prohibited by state law.
County Governments: Must seek specific legislative approval for each ordinance.
Restrictions: Counties cannot pass ordinances on land use (zoning) or building codes, forcing rural homeowners to rely on builders' integrity.
Enforcement Failures: Even where authority exists, counties may fall short.
Septic Systems Example: Many counties with authority to regulate septic systems failed to pass ordinances or adequately inspect installations. This function was transferred to the state health department in 1992.
Inequity of Financial Resources
Revenue Sources: Few counties have a sales tax; most rely almost exclusively on property tax.
Disproportionate Tax Burden: Most property tax revenue comes from citizens living within cities, not from unincorporated rural areas.
Brazos County (2021 Example): Of 19.74 billion in total taxable property, 15.61 billion (or 79.08 percent) was within Bryan and College Station. Thus, city residents paid most of the county government's cost.
Unequal Service Distribution: County residents (rural) pay proportionally little of the cost but receive many services (road repair, police protection) that city residents do not receive from the county (as cities provide these via city taxes).
Double Taxation: City residents effectively pay twice for services they receive only once, though this inequity is often unnoticed.
Federalism Revisited: Types of Local Government
Decentralized Governance and Local Governments
Learning Objective: Define types of local government.
U.S. Government: Characterized by a highly decentralized system, rooted in historical fear of a strong national government and the principles of federalism.
Federalism: A political principle assigning different functions to different levels of government (national, state, local).
Local Governments: Add another layer to the federalist structure.
Trends: Decentralization and a lack of intergovernmental coordination are prevalent throughout the U.S. and in Texas.
Number of Local Governments (2017):
United States: 90,095 units.
Texas: 5,343 units.
Table 7.1: Number of Local Governments in the United States and Texas, 2017
Counties: US 3,031, Texas 254
Cities: US 19,495, Texas 1,218
Townships: US 16,253, Texas —
School districts: US 12,754, Texas 1,073
Special districts: US 38,542, Texas 2,798
Totals: US 90,095, Texas 5,343
"Creatures of the State"
State Police Powers: In a federal system, states possess police powers (authority to regulate citizens' health, safety, and morals) derived from the Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
These powers are exercised by making and enforcing laws, including legal sanctions and nonphysical coercion.
Local Government's Legal Status: Constitutionally, municipalities and other local governments are "legal creatures of the state."
They are constrained by the same legal limits as states and lack independent legal existence apart from state action.
This relationship between state and local governments is "unitary in design."
Contrast with Unitary Systems: While unitary governments also create subdivisions, they strictly dictate what those governments can and cannot do, granting only express powers.
State Discretion: In the U.S. federal system, states have substantial discretion over the authority granted to their local governments, leading to varying levels of authority among local governments within each state.
Categorization of Local Governments by Authority
General-Purpose Governments:
Possess broad discretionary authority to act on a range of issues.
Control their own spending, revenue, and personnel, and can establish/modify their governmental structures.
Example: Municipalities in Texas, particularly home rule cities.
Limited-Purpose Governments:
Have narrow authority to act and little leeway over revenue, spending, and personnel.
The state sets the structure of these governments.
Examples in Texas:
School Districts: Have a single function (education), limited property tax authority, and many personnel issues controlled by a state agency.
Texas Counties: State law severely restricts their authority and revenue sources. All 254 Texas counties share the same governmental structure.
General Law Cities and Home Rule
Municipal Charters and Classification
Learning Objective: Define general law cities and home rule cities.
Municipal Corporations: Cities are legally municipal corporations, granted a corporate charter by their state.
Charter: Acts as the city's constitution, outlining its basic organization, structure, powers, and authority of government and officials.
Texas City Classification: Cities in Texas are chartered as either a general law city or a home rule city.
General Law Cities
Charters: Their charters are explicitly defined in state statutes, and these cities must choose from the seven charters provided by state law.
Prevalence: Roughly 75 percent of all Texas cities operate under general law.
Limited Authority: As limited-purpose governments, general law cities have narrower authority compared to home rule cities.
Home Rule Cities
Constitutional Basis: Enabled by a state constitutional amendment in 1912.
Eligibility: Texas cities with a population of at least 5,000 may be chartered as home rule cities. Most eligible cities opt for this status.
Advantages:
Offers local citizens a greater range of governmental structure and organization.
Allows cities to pass any ordinance not prohibited by state law or the state constitution.
Scope of Power: While no specific grant of power is given to cities in the state constitution, home rule cities can pass ordinances as long as they do not conflict with state law or violate the state constitution.
Example 1: The state constitution sets a maximum of four-year terms for city council members, but there is no state law dictating the number of council members a city must have.
Example 2 (Implicit Prohibition): State courts have ruled that alcohol regulation is a state function. Therefore, cities cannot pass ordinances banning open alcohol containers in vehicles, even if no explicit state law prohibits it.
Charter Amendments:
Citizen Approval: Once adopted, home rule charters can only be amended with the approval of city voters.
Initiation: Amendments are usually proposed by a charter review commission or the city council.
Citizen-Initiated Amendments: Under Section 9.004 of the Local Government Code, citizens can force an election on a proposed amendment by filing a petition signed by 5 percent of qualified voters or 20,000 people, whichever is less.
State Law Exceptions for Council Amendments: The Texas legislature periodically allows city councils to amend their charters without a citizen vote on specific issues.
Election Date: Councils may be permitted to change the municipal election date to November.
Vacancy Filling (Proposition 7, 2013): Texas voters approved a constitutional amendment allowing municipalities to fill short-term vacancies (less than 12 months) in their governing body without costly special elections, preserving democratic process.
Incorporation: The Process of Creating a City
Definition: Incorporation is the legal process of establishing a city, which formally becomes a municipal corporation.
Steps for Incorporation in Texas:
Petition: Local citizens petition the state to be incorporated.
Election: An election is held, requiring a simple majority of voters to approve the establishment of a city with explicitly drawn territorial boundaries.
Charter Issuance: The state issues a municipal corporate charter (initially a general law charter).
Officials Election: A second election is held to elect city officials.
Texas Specific Requirements:
Population: A minimum of 201 citizens must live within a two-square-mile area.
Petition Signatures: 10 percent of registered voters and 50 percent of property owners in the proposed area must sign petitions requesting an election.
County Judge Role: If the petition is valid, the county judge calls for the incorporation election.
Extraterritorial Jurisdiction (ETJ)
Definition: By Texas law, all cities have an ETJ that extends beyond their city limits, providing a measure of regulatory control over the growth (zoning, construction) of surrounding areas.
ETJ Distance:
General law cities: 0.5 mile ETJ.
The distance increases with city population, extending up to 5 miles for cities with populations above 250,000.
Protection Against Encroachment: It is illegal for a new city to incorporate within an existing city's ETJ unless the existing city approves, preventing smaller towns from impeding the growth of established cities.
Annexation
Definition: Annexation is the process by which cities legally add adjoining unincorporated territory to their total land area.
Reasons for Annexation:
Prevent Encirclement: Cities annex to avoid being surrounded by other incorporated cities, which would halt future growth (annexation of another city requires consent, which is rare).
Enhance Tax Base: New land brings new property and sales taxes, and a larger population, strengthening the city's financial resources.
Increase Political Importance: Larger populations grant greater political clout, more access to federal grant money, and increased representation in the state legislature and U.S. Congress.
Texas Annexation Powers: Historically, Texas cities have had broad annexation powers.
Unilateral Action: City councils could unilaterally annex land by a majority vote, often without the voice or vote of residents in the annexed area (though this is changing).
Expansion: This power, combined with ETJ provisions, provided Texas cities ample room for expansion.
Legislative Restrictions and Reforms:
Counterpressure: Rapid city growth led to counterpressure from residents in ETJ areas who enjoyed city benefits without paying city taxes.
1999 Annexation Law: Required cities to give three years' notice before formal annexation, create a service plan and deliver services within 2.5 years, and arbitrate with residents of the proposed area.
2009 Attorney General Opinion: Stated the three-year notice requirement did not apply to "sparsely populated areas."
Recent Reforms (2017 Senate Bill 6 and 2019 House Bill 347): Significantly empowered ETJ residents in the annexation process.
For home rule cities in counties with more than 500,000 residents, resident approval is now required.
Areas with fewer than 200 residents: City must secure signatures from more than 50 percent of registered voters. If registered voters own 50 percent or less of the land, then signatures from more than 50 percent of landowners are also needed.
Areas with more than 200 residents: The city must hold an election in the area, allowing registered voters to decide on annexation. Again, if registered voters own 50 percent or less of the land, then signatures from more than 50 percent of landowners are necessary.
Outlook: Despite these stricter policies, cities are expected to continue to be increasingly important in Texas's future.
Municipal Elections
Overview of Municipal Election Systems
Learning Objective: Explain municipal elections in Texas, including a discussion of voter turnout.
Common Systems: The two most common municipal election types are at-large election systems and single-member district systems.
Alternative Systems in Texas: Texas also utilizes cumulative voting and preferential voting.
At-Large Election Systems
Historical Shift: In the early twentieth century, many cities moved away from single-member districts to elect council members at large, meaning all voters in the city participate in electing all council members.
Variations (See Figure 7.6):
At-Large by Place (Most Common in Texas):
Candidates file for specific numbered ballot positions (e.g., Place 1, Place 2).
Voters cast one vote for each at-large ballot position.
The candidate who wins a majority of votes for that place is elected.
At-Large by Place with Residence Wards Required:
Candidates still file for a specific place, but each place is assigned to a distinct geographic area.
Candidates must reside within that assigned ward or section of the city to run for that place.
Example (Abilene, Texas): Divided into two wards with three council seats each. The mayor can live anywhere in the city, but both the mayor and council members are elected at-large by all city residents.
At-Large No Place (Least Common in Texas):
All candidates' names are listed on the ballot.
If there are, for example, 10 candidates for 5 open seats, voters are instructed to cast one vote for each of 5 candidates.
The top 5 candidates with the most votes win. This method often results in a candidate winning with only a plurality (less than a majority) of votes.
Combination Systems: Some cities use a mix of at-large and single-member district systems.
Example (Houston): Voters elect 11 council members from single-member districts, while 5 council members and the mayor are elected at large by all city voters.
Single-Member District (SMD) Election Systems
Structure: Each city council seat is assigned to a specific district, which is divided into approximately equal populations.
Voters within each district elect their respective council member.
Candidates for a particular seat usually must live within the district they represent.
Mayor's Role: In a true SMD system, only the mayor is selected at-large.
Prevalence in Texas: While some municipalities nationwide use multimember districts, all district elections in Texas are single-member district systems.
Prior to 1975, SMDs were almost nonexistent in Texas cities.
Impact of the Voting Rights Act (VRA) of 1965:
Initial Targets (Section 4): Initially targeted election sites with disenfranchising tactics (e.g., literacy tests) and required federal intervention. (Struck down in 2013 by Shelby County v. Holder).
Preauthorization (Section 5): The centerpiece of the legislation, it subjected targeted states and counties to preauthorization requirements for election-related legislation and federal monitors during elections.
Circumvention Attempts: In the 1970s, Southern states tried to circumvent the VRA using at-large voting to dilute the concentration and effect of Black voters.
Congressional Response: Congress made changes, leading to the growth of SMDs across the U.S. The belief was that SMDs would allow a minority group to form a majority within a district, thereby electing their preferred candidate.
VRA Applied to Texas (1975): Many Texas cities have since transitioned from at-large to SMD systems, particularly major cities forced to adopt SMDs for at least some city council seats.
Outcomes of SMD Adoption:
Increased Minority Representation: The number of minority candidates elected to city councils has substantially increased in cities that have switched to SMDs.
Council Member Behavior: Studies (e.g., in Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, Fort Worth) indicate that SMD council members:
Show greater concern for neighborhood issues.
Engage in vote trading.
Increase contact with constituents regarding service requests.
Become more involved in administrative affairs of the city.
Service Distribution: While SMD council members may prioritize district representation, no evidence suggests a dramatic change in the overall distribution of services. Representation may be largely symbolic.
Symbolic Significance: Symbolic representation can be important, as it can increase support for local governments when minority groups feel they have representation and comfortable access to their council member.
Cumulative and Preferential Voting Systems
Cumulative Voting System:
Mechanism: Each voter receives a number of votes equal to the number of open seats in the election.
Flexibility: Voters can cast all their votes for one candidate (cumulating their votes), cast one vote for each of several candidates, or use any combination.
Adoption: Several cities and school districts have adopted this system as an alternative to SMDs.
Advocacy: Preferred by voting rights activists as a method to increase minority representation without the need for drawing single-member districts, potentially avoiding gerrymandering.
Example (Amarillo Independent School District): Adopted in 2000 and remains the largest government body in Texas using this system.
Preferential Voting System (Instant-Runoff System):
Mechanism: Allows voters to rank their candidates for city council (first, second, third preference, etc.).
Counting: Employs a complex ballot-counting system to elect the most-preferred candidates.
Usage in Texas: No city in Texas currently uses this system, though Gorman and Sweetwater used it in the past.
Arguments for Alternative Systems: Advocates argue these systems allow minority interests to effectively vote for candidates without the potential for gerrymandering associated with SMDs.
Evidence: Some evidence, like the Amarillo ISD case, suggests these systems result in more minority candidates being elected.
Majority vs. Plurality: Some city charters permit a candidate to win with a plurality (less than a majority) of the vote.
Texas Law: If a city council term of office exceeds two years, a majority vote is required, potentially necessitating a runoff election if no candidate achieves a majority.
Nonpartisan Elections
Nature: All municipal elections in Texas are technically nonpartisan, meaning candidates run and appear on the ballot without any party designation.
The Texas Election Code allows home rule cities to conduct partisan elections, but none currently do.
Historical Context (Reform Movement): Nonpartisan elections were a key feature of the early twentieth-century reform movement, aiming to diminish the power of partisan big-city political machines.
Reformers argued that administrative tasks (garbage collection, street paving, police/fire protection) should not be partisan.
Texas Adoption: Texas cities primarily adopted nonpartisan systems because the state was a one-party Democratic state for over 100 years, and partisanship was less of a factor even in state elections.
Reality of Partisanship: Nonpartisan ballots do not eliminate partisanship from local politics; it merely takes new forms.
"Nonpartisan Organizations": For decades, groups like the Citizens Charter Association in Dallas, the Good Government League in San Antonio, and the Business and Professional Association in Wichita Falls and Abilene successfully ran slates of candidates and dominated city politics.
While their influence has waned, slate-making still occurs.
Recent Partisanship: Partisanship has been a factor in city elections, especially mayoral races, in cities like San Antonio, Houston, and Dallas.
Visibility of Leanings: Even with nonpartisan labels, voters in large cities can often easily discern a candidate's political leanings (e.g.,