Ch06

Chapter Overview

• Focus: Understanding the psychological concepts surrounding memory.

• Topics include memory types, stages, retrieval, forgetting, and biological bases of memory.

What Is Memory?

• Definition: Memory involves the mental processes for acquiring, storing, and retrieving information.

  • Memory enables encoding, retention, and retrieval over time.

Three Major Processes of Memory

1. Encoding

• transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system

2. Storage

• Process: Retaining encoded information for future use.

3. Retrieval

• Process: Accessing and recovering stored information for conscious recall.

The Three-Stage Model of Memory

• Information is transferred from one memory stage to another

• Memory consists of three distinct stages:

  • Sensory Memory: Registers environmental information for a brief period.

  • Short-Term Memory: Temporarily holds information for active processing.

  • Long-Term Memory: Enables long-term storage of information, potentially for a lifetime.

Sensory Memory(8)

• Function: Briefly stores sensory impressions so that they overlap slightly with one another

• To perceive the world as continuous, rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed sounds

  • Types:

    • Echoic Memory (Auditory): Lasts 3-4 seconds, allows speech continuity.

      • Allows hearing speech as continuous words and musical notes as melody

    • Iconic Memory (Visual): Lasts 1/4 to 1/2 second; captured by experiments by George Sperling.

      • Brief memory of an image, or icon

Short-Term Memory and Working Memory

Short-Term Memory

• Key Theme: Short-term memory allows temporary storage for information from sensory and long-term memory.

  • Acts as a consciousness workshop.

Duration of Short-Term Memory

• Typically lasts up to 20 seconds; can be retained longer via rehearsal.

• Causes of Information Loss: Decay or interference from new information.

Capacity of Short-Term Memory (11)

• Limited Capacity: Described by George Miller as “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.”

• Can be improved with chunking techniques.

Working Memory (Alan Baddeley’s Model)

• Definition: A system that temporarily holds and manipulates information.

• Components: Includes phonological loops, visuospatial sketchpad, and a central executive.

Long-Term Memory

Definition and Characteristics

• Key Theme: Long-term memory can store unlimited information for extensive periods.

• Characterized by quick retrieval and significant storage capacity.

Encoding Long-Term Memories

• Strategies: Techniques like elaborative rehearsal, self-reference effects, and visual imagery enhance encoding.

Types of Long-Term Memory

1. Procedural Memory: Knowledge of skills and actions.

2. Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events.

3. Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts.

4. Autobiographical Memory: Life experiences and history.

Implicit and Explicit Memory

Explicit Memory

• Involves conscious recollection of experiences and factual information.

  • Includes episodic and semantic memory.

Implicit Memory

• Unconscious memory influencing behavior without conscious awareness.

  • Associated with tasks and learned behaviors.

Factors Affecting Memory

Culture’s Effects on Memory

• Cultural contexts shape autobiographical memories.

• Differences noted in how events are recalled through familial interactions.

Organization of Information

• Clustering: Memory improvement via organizing similar information into categories rather than random presentations.

Semantic Network Model

• Connections formed between concepts based on shared characteristics.

  • Activation of one concept may lead to activation of others.

Retrieval of Long-Term Memory

Key Theme

• Retrieval is essential for accessing stored information.

Importance of Cues

• Effectiveness often depends on having appropriate retrieval cues.

  • Failure occurs when cues are insufficient (cue failure).

Common Retrieval Glitches

• Tip-Of-The-Tongue (TOT) Experience: Knowing information is stored but cannot be accessed. Highly common phenomenon.

Testing Retrieval

1. Recall: Remembering without cues (free recall).

2. Cued Recall: Remembering with cues.

3. Recognition: Identifying correct information among options.

The Serial Position Effect

Definition

• Tendency to recall items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) better than the middle of a list.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Definition

• Successful retrieval occurs when encoding and retrieval contexts align.

  • Context Effects: Recall is improved in the same environment as encoding.

Mood Congruence

• Tendency to recall memories consistent with current emotions.

Flashbulb Memories

Characteristics

• Vivid recollection of significant events; confidence in accuracy may be high, but actual accuracy can vary over time.

Forgetting: When Retrieval Fails

Definition

• Forgetting occurs when previously learned information cannot be retrieved.

Hermann Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve

• Initial rapid loss of memory followed by gradual decline.

  • Depends on how well material was encoded and rehearsed.

Reasons for Forgetting

1. Encoding Failure: Material not properly encoded in the first place.

2. Absentmindedness: Forgetting due to lapses in attention.

Decay Theory

• Memory traces fade over time, but evidence suggests longevity exists for well-encoded memories.

Interference Theory

• Competing memories interfere with retrieval.

  • Retroactive interference: New memories hinder recall of old information.

  • Proactive interference: Old memories hinder learning of new information.

Motivated Forgetting

• Unwanted memories suppressed willingly (suppression) or involuntarily (repression).

Imperfect Memories

Key Theme

• Memories can be distorted or inaccurate, regardless of confidence levels.

Memory Distortions

• Misinformation Effect: Post-event information alters original memories.

• Source Confusion: Misattributing memories to incorrect sources.

Convicting the Innocent

• The construction of memories can lead to inaccuracies, impacting judicial outcomes

Schemas and Memory Distortions

• Schemas guide the organization and retrieval of memories but can also create distortions.

• Memory can be unintentionally altered by pre-existing knowledge.

Contact Tracing and Memory Shortcomings

• Used methodologies to enhance accuracy in recalling details about an event.

Forming False Memories

Techniques Leading to False Memories

• Use of family accounts or suggestive techniques can implant memories of events that never occurred.

Memory Wars

Controversy on Memory Recovery

• Recovered memories may either represent genuine memories or fabrications.

Search for Biological Basis of Memory

Key Theme

• Memory has physical correlates within brain structures.

Key Findings

1. Memory Traces: Changes in the brain's structure or chemistry correlate with memory formation.

2. Neurons' Role: Research shows functional and structural shifts in neurons during memory storage.

Amnesia Research

• Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

Alzheimer's Disease

• Neurodegeneration leads to memory impairment and cognitive decline.

Ten Steps to Boost Your Memory

1. Commit time for studying.

2. Organize the material effectively.

3. Elaborate on the material for better understanding.

4. Teach the material to someone else.

5. Use visual imagery to enhance recall.

6. Minimize interference from other topics.

7. Account for serial position effects in study habits.

8. Use contextual cues to support memory retrieval.

9. Implement mnemonic devices for lists.

10. Ensure sufficient sleep for memory consolidation.