Exam Study Notes on Early Christianity

Early Christianity's Initial Popularity

In the earliest years, Christianity wasn't very popular. Around 100 AD, the estimated number of Christians was about 7,000, with fewer than 100 being fully literate and able to read Christian stories. Predicting which stories would become dominant was difficult, but time and chance played a role in determining the winners.

Terminology

This study avoids terms like "heretic," "heretical," "orthodox," and "pagan." When used, they are often in inverted commas, with context implying their meaning. The relationship between early Christianity and Judaism, as well as the anti-Jewish rhetoric and laws, are not covered but those interested in this topic can begin with Géza Vermes’s Jesus the Jew and the Theodosian Code.

Apollonius of Tyana: An 'Antichrist'

Miraculous Birth

Apollonius of Tyana's birth was considered miraculous, much like Jesus'. During the reign of Caesar Augustus, a woman in the Roman Empire became pregnant. A divine being appeared to her, announcing that her son would be a god incarnate, not just the son of a god.

Upon his birth, a bolt of lightning appeared above his birthplace, seen as a sign of his brilliance.

Life and Miracles

As Apollonius grew, people were drawn to him due to his miraculous birth and unusual appearance. He wore simple linen robes, kept long hair, and went barefoot. His charisma drew crowds, even causing workmen to abandon their tasks to follow him. He was known for driving out demons, healing the sick, and even raising the dead.

One notable miracle occurred in Rome on a dreary, rainy day when sickness was prevalent. Apollonius encountered a funeral procession for a young girl from a prominent family who had died on her wedding day. Approaching the mourners, he declared he would end their sorrow. After learning her name, he touched the corpse and said something secretly, reviving her instantly. The girl then spoke and returned home.

Belief and Worship

While some scorned these stories, others believed in his divine nature, regarding him as a god in human form. Apollonius himself claimed, "I am not mortal." His biography was later titled, 'A Visit of God to Mankind.' Stories of Apollonius spread rapidly, leading to the construction of shrines and widespread worship, even among the imperial family. Christians later referred to him as an 'antichrist.'

Contrasting Views of Christ's Arrival

Milton and Gibbon's Perspectives

Poet Milton suggested that Christ's birth led to the immediate defeat of Roman gods, who fled in terror. Enlightenment historian Edward Gibbon argued that Jesus' arrival initiated true religious belief, as Romans previously held "secret contempt" for their own gods. Gibbon believed that the Romans received a “genuine revelation, fitted to inspire the most rational esteem and conviction” with the arrival of Jesus.

Gombrich's View

As late as the twentieth century, E. H. Gombrich, in A Little History of the World, described Christianity as an entirely new concept for the Romans.

Re-evaluating Ancient Texts

Careful examination of ancient texts reveals that the ancient world was not waiting for a savior and did not perceive Christianity as particularly novel. Stories of virgin births and divine parentage were common, with similar tales told about Asclepius, Apollonius, and Pythagoras.

Criticisms of Christianity

Ancient Intellectuals' Contempt

Ancient intellectuals reacted to Christianity with contempt, boredom, and concealed mirth. Philosopher Porphyry criticized Christian parables as "fictitious" garbage, filled with stupidity and written in a comical style. Christian metaphors were considered dubious, and Christian theology was regarded as idiotic.

Ancient authors dismissed Christian promises of the world's end and resurrection. The cynical pagan world considered Jesus either a liar, a lunatic, or neither of the three, but certainly not God.

Novelties and Revulsion

Christianity's practice of ceremonially consuming the 'body' and 'blood' of Jesus was met with revulsion rather than rational esteem. Porphyry found the idea of tasting human flesh and blood repulsive, describing it as "bestial and absurd."

Lack of Uniqueness

Critics questioned why Christian stories were considered noble while others were dismissed as legends. They pointed out that other men had also performed wonders. Christians placed faith in texts written by uneducated individuals, with critics describing Jesus' followers as 'liars [and] yokels.'

Rejection of Prophecies

Skeptical Greeks and Romans dismissed Jesus' prophecies, noting that many men prophesied at the slightest excuse. Celsus described these prophets as wandering, begging, and babbling about the end times.

Competitors and Confusion

Christianity acknowledged its competitors, warning against false Christs and prophets. Celsus questioned how one could discern which doom-monger to believe, suggesting that people were throwing dice to decide whom to follow.

Timing of Christ's Arrival

Porphyry questioned why God waited so long to send Christ, leaving those who lived before him to suffer in hell. He criticized the idea of a compassionate God allowing an innumerable multitude of peoples born before Jesus to be damned.

End of the World

Porphyry dismissed the Christian idea of the world's imminent end, arguing that every street on earth knew the gospel, yet the end was nowhere in sight. He stated that no one “is so uneducated or so stupid” to believe in Christian’s view of the end times.

Similarities and Plausible Precedents

Early Christianity admitted similarities with other cults, using them as plausible precedents for their claims. Justin Martyr stated that the virgin birth, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension were not different from beliefs regarding Jupiter's sons.

The ancient world was not emptied of its gods upon Christ's arrival. The Roman pantheon was vast, with countless lesser deities associated with various human endeavors. One fifth-century Christian tutted about the “swarm of deities” overseeing matters such as sex. Several deities resembled Jesus, sharing divine niches and performing similar miracles.

Cynics and Charlatans

Figures like Apsethus, who trained parrots to proclaim his divinity, were mocked by their skeptical neighbors. Lucian satirized a charlatan named Alexander, who enriched himself by establishing a new religion by preying on “fat-heads” and “simpletons”.

Apollonius and Jesus: Parallels

The lives of Apollonius and Jesus shared many similarities, beginning with their births. Their birth years are also similar, estimated between 6 BC and 4 BC for Jesus, and 4 BC or 3 BC to the early years of the first century AD for Apollonius; and perhaps overlapping.

Miraculous Births

Apollonius' mother was visited by a divine being during her pregnancy, similar to the angel's visit to Mary, mother of Jesus. Both were told they would give birth to someone divine. Jesus' birth was marked by a star, while Apollonius' was marked by lightning.

Later Lives

Both men led peripatetic lives, preaching and gathering followers. When Apollonius arrived in a town, people followed him, just as fishermen left their work to follow Jesus. Both performed miracles, including raising the dead.

Raising the Dead

Apollonius revived a dead girl during a funeral procession in Rome, similar to Jesus reviving a widow's son near the town gate. Both approached the body, said something, and brought the dead back to life. Apollonius whispered something inaudible, while Jesus spoke.

Trials

Both men irritated authorities, leading to trials by the Romans with potential execution. Both willingly went to their trials, distressing their followers. Apollonius told his friend that he will see him alive, or, by his friend's way of thinking, risen from the dead.

Accusations and Judgments

Both were accused of claiming divinity. Jesus would not give a hard conviction, with Pontius Pilate washing his hands of Jesus’ situation, while Apollonius simply disappeared from the courtroom in a “godlike and inexplicable” manner. Jesus was executed, and Apollonius vanished.

Appearances After Death

Both reappeared to their followers, who initially doubted their sight. Jesus encouraged Thomas to touch his wounds, while Apollonius invited his follower to touch him to prove his existence. Thomas was known as "Doubting Thomas".

Origins of Similarities

The origin of these similarities is unclear. It is uncertain whether Apollonius' biography copied the gospels or vice versa. The Gospels were written between AD 70 and AD 110, while Apollonius' biography was written around AD 220, relying on an earlier biography from a contemporary of Apollonius. Both accounts may have drawn from common myths and philosophical ideas, particularly Stoicism, about a virtuous life.

The Religious Marketplace

Milton's idea of gods fleeing at Christ's birth is inaccurate. Apollonius and Christ were born into a world where miracles and divine figures were common. The first century AD was full of lords, saviors, and gods, both the one who became 'our Lord' in the West and many others who did not.

Healthcare in the Roman Empire

Classical medicine was advanced but also marked by ignorance and incurable conditions. Life expectancy at birth was around twenty-five years. Effective cures were scarce, and medical treatments could be alarming. Pliny the Elder suggested remedies like wool-grease mixed with a dog's head or a serpent's slough. Childbirth was dangerous, and tools like 'the embryo-slaughterer' were used in difficult births.

Alternative Healing

When doctors failed, people turned to the gods. Holy men performed miracles, such as healing the sick and raising the dead, which Celsus noted were common claims. Religion and healthcare were intertwined, with temples filled with prayers and offerings for healing. Ancient religion was, in many ways, healthcare with a halo.

Historians' Disdain

Historians often overlooked the sicknesses of ordinary people, but illness impacted history. Disease could decimate armies. Medical texts loomed large in surviving Roman literature, with Galen's works comprising 10% of Greek literature before AD 350.

Healing Deities

Many successful deities were connected with healing. While Jesus' healings are remembered, one historian called Christianity a "medical religion." A Greek text praised a divine healer, and inscriptions thanked gods for restoring sight and healing lameness. Accounts of the blind being healed and the lame walking were popular.

Vespasian's Healings

A prophecy circulated in the first century AD stated that men from Judaea would rule the world. Emperor Vespasian was believed to have heavenly powers. After visiting a temple, he was approached by a blind man and a lame man who asked him to heal them. After initial reluctance, Vespasian touched their eyes and heel, resulting in their successful healing.

Similar Stories

This story is similar to accounts of Jesus healing the blind, as recorded in the Gospels. In order to compete with the story of Vespasian, it has been suggested that the story of Jesus healing the blind was tweaked to be more competitive with the story of Vespasian.

Comparisons and Confusion

Christians admitted similarities between their healer and others, such as Asclepius. When St. Paul healed a lame man, crowds mistook him and his companion for Hermes and Zeus. Critics pointed out similarities between Jesus and Asclepius, who was also considered a god, died violently, and ascended to heaven. Asclepius performed miracles, was called 'Lord' and 'Saviour', and even healed minor ailments.

Resurrections

Many healers, including Asclepius, raised the dead. The history of miraculous resurrections was long. The god Salmoxis convinced the Thracians he was a god by vanishing and reappearing after a few years. By the first century AD, being revived from death was common enough to be included in encyclopedias.

Pliny the Elder's Natural History included a chapter on those who came to life again after burial, mentioning Asclepiades, who saved a man from his funeral pyre. Early Christians used the phoenix as an example to support Christ's resurrection. Origen argued that resurrections were common, so Jesus' resurrection was not amazing.

Criticisms of the Resurrection

Celsus attacked the Christian resurrection, attributing it to sorcery, dreams, or wishful thinking. He argued that Christians had just made it up instead. Such stories highlight the lack of medical knowledge at the time. Doctors struggled to differenciate between "being dead" and "being alive".

Common Trope

Resurrection stories were so common that a play featured the resurrection of a dog. Celsus listed numerous figures who had returned from the underworld. Critics pointed out the absurdity of bodily resurrection, given that bodies decay and are consumed by animals.

Tomb Thefts

The frequency of tomb thefts may have contributed to the proliferation of resurrection stories. Laws were enacted against violating tombs. The Gospel of Matthew addresses the fear that Jesus' body would be stolen. Empty tombs were a common trope in literature, as seen in the novel Callirhoe.

Loss and Faith

Poor medicine and common deaths made illness and loss difficult to bear. Cicero considered setting up a shrine to his deceased daughter, Tullia. The presence of disease, death, and uncertainty made people turn to something higher for help.

Rome: Light and Darkness

Rome is often portrayed as a city of brilliance and sophistication, but it was also a city of darkness. There were no streetlights, resulting in dark and dangerous streets. Romans were afraid of the dark, fearing thieves, ghosts, and the terrors of the night.

Magic in Rome

Magic was prevalent in Rome, with poets immortalizing it and laws banning it. Witches performed rites among the dead and living. The death of a four-year-old, as inscribed on their tombstone, might be attributed from dark magic.

Alongside other professions, Rome had magicians, fortune-tellers, exorcists, diviners, astrologers, and poisoners. Official disapproval of magic denoted official anxiety. The Twelve Tables and emperors issued penalties against magic. Christians rooted out magic, burning magical texts.

Loss of Evidence

Many magical books were burned, and intellectuals destroyed their libraries to avoid accusations of magic. As a result, evidence for ancient magic is scarce.

Rediscovery of Magical Papyri

In the nineteenth century, unusual papyri surfaced in European antiquities markets. These authorless texts were filled with odd drawings, strange shapes, and nonsensical words. Museums bought them but ignored them initially.

Spell Books

Scholars eventually studied the texts, discovering they were spell books from ancient magicians. These texts spoke of bending the laws of nature, curing diseases, and raising the dead. They offered spells for controlling the wind, solidifying streams, summoning banquets, and becoming invisible.

Atmospheric Manuscripts

Ancient spell manuscripts are atmospheric, with wax stains. Most likely, they once belonged to a single library of an ancient magician. The spells read like recipes.

Ingredients and Alternatives

Spells required ingredients like night owl's eye, dung rolled by a beetle, frankincense, old wine, cumin, cardamom, nightshade, bayberries, cinnabar ink, drowned cat, serpent's blood, and eye of an ape. Alternatives were offered, such as using the eye of a corpse that died violently if an ape's eye was unavailable.

Purposes of Spells

Spells promised good health, cured seizures, stopped bleeding, acted as pregnancy tests, and even provided erections. Some were modest, restraining anger or keeping bugs away, while others were ambitious, offering invisibility, foreknowledge, and communication with deities.

Religious Blend

A strong vein of ancient religion ran through the spells, with deities treated practically. Spells called upon Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Zeus, Hermes, Helios, and the god of the Hebrews, blending Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, and Jewish religions, and even some Christian elements.

The Jewish God was popular, as Jewish magic was famous. These documents were both other-worldly and mundance. They speak of physical misery and fear; they offer to lighten the burdens of life. Betz wrote that magic provides the illusion of security.

Egyptian Magic

Magical texts from other cultures, especially Egypt, had been studied previously. E. A. Wallis Budge wrote that priests and magicians had almost boundless power, controlling the weather and commanding nature. Egyptian magicians could heal, cast out spirits, and restore the dead to life.

Greek Magic

Studying Greek magical texts was fraught. These newly discovered papyri contained spells in Greek, the language of both Pericles and the gospels. One seminar on the Greek Magical Papyri avoided mentioning the word "magic."

Comparison to Christianity

When Christianity appeared amidst magic, Greeks and Romans recognized it as sorcery. Celsus compared Jesus' works to sorcerers. Jewish traditions remembered Jesus as a magician with magical power. Celsus assumed Jesus learned magic in Egypt. Some texts dismissed Jesus as a wizard.

Christianity vs. Magic

Christianity engaged in a war about whether it was a religion or magic. Christians claimed a competitive edge over other wonder-workers, arguing that their exorcisms were better. Augustine argued that bad miracles depended on