ap psych unit 6
Memory
Learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved
Recall
Being able to access the information without being cued (fill in the blank test without word bank)
Recognition
Identifying information after experiencing it again (multiple choice test)
Relearning
The process by which we learn something for the second time. This learning process often occurs faster than the first time (study for cumulative final)
Information Processing Model
Model of memory, compares our mind to a computer in a series of three stages
Encoding: The process of putting information into the memory system
“Get information into our brain”
Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it
Storage: The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
“Retain the information”
Storage is for a period of time, ranging from a moment to a lifetime
Retrieval: The calling back of stored information on demand when it is needed
“Get the information back out”
We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-stage Model of Memory
Three different memory systems characterized by time frames
Sensory Memory: External events from our senses are held just long enough to be perceived. Our selective attention, focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction is encoded into short-term memory
Iconinc: Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, duration of less than a second
Echoic: The branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system
Haptic: The branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch, seems to decay after about 2 seconds
Short-term Memory: The information we are currently aware of or thinking about
Long-term memory: All the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds
Levels of Processing Model
How long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded
Depth refers to the attention, focus, elaboration, and emphasis on a particular memory
Shallow Processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance
Structural-encode physical qualities
Phonemic-encode sound
Shallow processing usually only results in the short term retention of the information
Deep Processing
Occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories
Chunking
Process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
Ex. 1 7 7 6 or 1776
Short-Term Memory
The capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time (about 20 to 30 seconds) (very sensitive)
Baddeley’s Working Memory
System in your brain that allows you to temporarily retain and manipulate the stored information involved in a complex process
Memory Span
Number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory
Long-Term Memory
The storage of information over an extended period
Can last from a few days to decades
Implicit (Unconscious) Memory
Information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly
Procedural Memory
“rules and tasks”, how to perform a specific task, you don't have to consciously recall how to perform these tasks.
Explicit (Conscious) Memory
Information that you have to consciously work to remember
Memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the information and can verbalize
We encode explicit memories through conscious, effortful processing
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. You must purposely try to remember
Semantic Memory
“Facts”: These are memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge
You use semantic memory when you take a test
Episodic Memory
(events) Long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences
Autobiographical memory or your memories of your own personal life history
Episodic and autobiographical memories play an important role in your self-identity
Prospective Memory
Remembering to complete a task in the future
Ex. knowing that a car needs to be filled every few days
Eidetic Memory
A person has visual images clear enough to be retained for seconds and realistic in their vividness
Memory Consolidation
Process where our brains convert short-term memories into long-term ones
Long-Term Potentiation
Strengthening of a synaptic connection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires ad excites another neuron
Currently believed to be a biological basis for learning and memory in mammals
LTP occurs in the hippocampus, transfer of information from short-term to long-term
Storage Decay
First to conduct experimental studies on memories by using himself as a subject
Forgetting Curve: the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it
Amnesia
Occurs when a person experiences the full or partial loss of memory, injury or trauma can create problems with various brain functions
Retrograde Amnesia: Cannot remember things that happened before the event that caused their amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia: Condition in which a person is unable to create new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
Retrieval Failure
“Why We Forget”: The failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded to help trigger the memory
Encoding Failure
Occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place (without effort, many memories never form)
“In one ear and out the other”
We cannot learn or recall what we do not perceive and attend to
Interference Theory
Some memories interfere with the retrieval of other memories, forgetting in long-term memory
Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
It is often easier to recall previously learned information rather than more recent learning
Retroactive Interference: newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories
Learning new things can make it more difficult to recall things that we already know
Flashbulb Memory
Vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events
Can develop in response to big events in our own lives
Memory Reconstruction
Approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it
We often construct our memories as we encode them, and we may also alter our memories as we withdraw them from our memory bank
People update their memories with logical processes, reasoning, new information, perception, imagination, beliefs, and cultural biases
Memory
Learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved
Recall
Being able to access the information without being cued (fill in the blank test without word bank)
Recognition
Identifying information after experiencing it again (multiple choice test)
Relearning
The process by which we learn something for the second time. This learning process often occurs faster than the first time (study for cumulative final)
Information Processing Model
Model of memory, compares our mind to a computer in a series of three stages
Encoding: The process of putting information into the memory system
“Get information into our brain”
Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it
Storage: The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
“Retain the information”
Storage is for a period of time, ranging from a moment to a lifetime
Retrieval: The calling back of stored information on demand when it is needed
“Get the information back out”
We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-stage Model of Memory
Three different memory systems characterized by time frames
Sensory Memory: External events from our senses are held just long enough to be perceived. Our selective attention, focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction is encoded into short-term memory
Iconinc: Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, duration of less than a second
Echoic: The branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system
Haptic: The branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch, seems to decay after about 2 seconds
Short-term Memory: The information we are currently aware of or thinking about
Long-term memory: All the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds
Levels of Processing Model
How long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded
Depth refers to the attention, focus, elaboration, and emphasis on a particular memory
Shallow Processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance
Structural-encode physical qualities
Phonemic-encode sound
Shallow processing usually only results in the short term retention of the information
Deep Processing
Occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories
Chunking
Process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
Ex. 1 7 7 6 or 1776
Short-Term Memory
The capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time (about 20 to 30 seconds) (very sensitive)
Baddeley’s Working Memory
System in your brain that allows you to temporarily retain and manipulate the stored information involved in a complex process
Memory Span
Number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory
Long-Term Memory
The storage of information over an extended period
Can last from a few days to decades
Implicit (Unconscious) Memory
Information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly
Procedural Memory
“rules and tasks”, how to perform a specific task, you don't have to consciously recall how to perform these tasks.
Explicit (Conscious) Memory
Information that you have to consciously work to remember
Memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the information and can verbalize
We encode explicit memories through conscious, effortful processing
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. You must purposely try to remember
Semantic Memory
“Facts”: These are memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge
You use semantic memory when you take a test
Episodic Memory
(events) Long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences
Autobiographical memory or your memories of your own personal life history
Episodic and autobiographical memories play an important role in your self-identity
Prospective Memory
Remembering to complete a task in the future
Ex. knowing that a car needs to be filled every few days
Eidetic Memory
A person has visual images clear enough to be retained for seconds and realistic in their vividness
Memory Consolidation
Process where our brains convert short-term memories into long-term ones
Long-Term Potentiation
Strengthening of a synaptic connection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires ad excites another neuron
Currently believed to be a biological basis for learning and memory in mammals
LTP occurs in the hippocampus, transfer of information from short-term to long-term
Storage Decay
First to conduct experimental studies on memories by using himself as a subject
Forgetting Curve: the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it
Amnesia
Occurs when a person experiences the full or partial loss of memory, injury or trauma can create problems with various brain functions
Retrograde Amnesia: Cannot remember things that happened before the event that caused their amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia: Condition in which a person is unable to create new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
Retrieval Failure
“Why We Forget”: The failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the memory was encoded to help trigger the memory
Encoding Failure
Occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place (without effort, many memories never form)
“In one ear and out the other”
We cannot learn or recall what we do not perceive and attend to
Interference Theory
Some memories interfere with the retrieval of other memories, forgetting in long-term memory
Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
It is often easier to recall previously learned information rather than more recent learning
Retroactive Interference: newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories
Learning new things can make it more difficult to recall things that we already know
Flashbulb Memory
Vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events
Can develop in response to big events in our own lives
Memory Reconstruction
Approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it
We often construct our memories as we encode them, and we may also alter our memories as we withdraw them from our memory bank
People update their memories with logical processes, reasoning, new information, perception, imagination, beliefs, and cultural biases
