In-Depth Notes on Helping & Altruism from Social Psychology

Social Psychology: Helping & Altruism

Introduction to Altruism

• Altruism: Defined as any behavior designed to increase another person's welfare, especially when there is no direct reward for doing so.
• Helping behaviors can be influenced by both selfless motives (genuine concern for others) and selfish motives (desire for personal gain).
• The chapter explores why people engage in prosocial behaviors and what factors influence these actions.

Understanding Altruism: Factors Influencing Helping Behavior

Biological Factors

• Altruistic behavior may be a part of our genetic makeup, suggesting humans inherently demonstrate altruism across cultures.

Social-Cognitive Factors

• People may help others to enhance their self-image or gain rewards (e.g., praise, status, money).
• Altruism is affected by our social environment and relationships with others.

Kinship and Similarity

• Humans are more likely to help those who are genetically related or similar to them (e.g., race, ideology, etc.).
• People favor friends and ingroup members over strangers in their altruistic actions, serving an evolutionary purpose for gene propagation.

Altruism and Social Exchange

• Reciprocal Altruism: Helps establish social bonds through mutual aid—"If I help you now, you may help me later."
• Helping often reflects a social exchange where both parties benefit indirectly.

The Neuroscience of Altruism

• Altruism is closely linked to emotional responses managed by the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.
• Understanding these emotional influences can help us comprehend altruistic actions.

Influence of Mood on Altruism

• Good Mood Effect: Individuals in good moods are more likely to help others, especially if it contributes to maintaining their positivity.
• Conversely, they may refuse help if they believe it may affect their mood negatively (Erber & Markunas, 2006).

Seminary Student Study on Time Pressure

• Students preparing talks on the Good Samaritan had variable opportunities to help a person in distress based on their time constraints.
• Findings indicated that time pressure significantly impacted their likelihood to assist, highlighting the effects of situational demands on altruism.

Norms of Altruism

Reciprocity Norm

• Reminds individuals that helping others often creates an expectation that they will receive help in return later.

Social Responsibility Norm

• Dictates that individuals should assist those in need, without expecting anything in return.

Legal Hazards of Altruism

• “Angel of Mercy” laws exist to protect individuals from legal liability when providing emergency assistance.
• Such laws encourage people to help others in emergency situations without fear of penalties.

Observational Learning in Altruism

• Passive Learning: Picking up on helping behaviors without direct instruction or purpose.
• Active Learning: Involves directly mimicking altruistic behaviors seen in role models.

Altruism and Cost/Rewards: A Study by Batson et al.

• Study where participants faced a moral dilemma about allocating tasks for payment.
• Highlights self-serving bias even in attempted acts of fairness and altruism.

Influence of Moods & Emotions on Helping

• Positive emotions enhance altruistic behavior by confirming one's self-image as helpful.
• Guilt may also motivate helping behavior as individuals seek to repair interpersonal relationships.

Negative Emotions and Helping

• Empathy: Understanding and sharing another's emotional experiences can motivate altruistic behavior.
• Personal Distress: Negative emotions may inhibit helping if they overwhelm the individual.
• It’s important to differentiate between feeling empathy and experiencing personal distress when considering helping behavior.

Bystander Intervention Process (Latane & Darley)

The decision to intervene in emergencies involves a series of steps:

1. Noticing the Event: Awareness of the situation.
2. Interpreting the Situation: Assessing whether help is needed, influenced by the presence of others (pluralistic ignorance).
3. Taking Responsibility: Deciding to act, which may be affected by diffusion of responsibility (thinking others will help).
4. Knowing How to Help: Lack of skills or knowledge can prevent people from intervening.

Personal Characteristics Influencing Altruism

• Some individuals possess an Altruistic Personality, characterized by high empathy and concern for others.
• Altruistic behaviors are influenced by genetic predispositions and environmental factors, including upbringing and personal experiences.

Cultural Differences in Altruism

• Altruism varies across cultures:
  • Individualistic Cultures: Focus on self-concern and selective helping.
  • Collectivistic Cultures: Emphasize community and greater obligation to assist others.

Increasing Altruism through Science

1. Enhance rewards and reduce costs associated with helping.
2. Reinforce altruistic behaviors to cultivate a self-perception of being helpful.
3. Foster social connections to reduce pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility, especially in emergencies.

These notes provide an overview of the theories and factors affecting helping behavior and altruism, illustrating the complexity of human interactions and motivations for assisting others.