Chap 2: Reforms of Tsar Alexander II

Tsar Alexander the Second: The Tsar Reformer

Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)

• Introduction:

  • Emancipation of Russia's 51 million serfs was a significant reform driven by Tsar Alexander II.

  • Hailed as a heroic humanitarian act, reshaping Russian society with the nickname "The Tsar Liberator".

• Historiographical Perspectives:

  • Historian Terrence Emmons suggests the edict was a state-directed manipulation aimed at enhancing political stability, not purely liberal humanitarianism.

  • Emmons argues it destabilized faith in the tsar and highlighted flaws in serfdom, forming rifts between the government and the landed gentry.

• Motivation for Reform:

  • Influenced by romantic poet tutor Vasily Zhukovsky, travels across Europe, and progressive political circles like the "party of Saint Petersburg progress".

  • Personal and familial associations with reformists fueled his determination to abolish serfdom.

  • Growing peasant uprisings during the 1840s heightened pressures for emancipation, adding urgency to the issue.

Key Profiles in Reform

• Milutin Brothers:

  • Nikolai Milutin (1818-1872): Key figure in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, instrumental in drafting the emancipation edict.

  • Dmitry Milutin (1816-1912): Minister of War, advocated for military reform linked to social reform, emphasizing the need for a free populace to enhance military effectiveness.

• Intelligentsia Influence: A group convinced serfdom stunted economic growth and was morally indefensible supported reforms.

Increase in Social Unrest

• Peasant Upheaval:

  • 1840-1844: Less than 30 annual serf revolts; increased drastically over the next 15 years due to economic pressures and conscription discontent.

• Crimean War Aftermath (1856):

  • Failures led to significant internal dissatisfaction, catalyzing the call for reform.

The Emancipation Edict of 1861

• Content of the Edict:

  • Applied initially to privately owned serfs; state serfs emancipated in 1866.

  • Land allocation provided, but entailed hefty redemption payments over 49 years, restricting true freedom.

  • Landowners compensated but retained other properties, with local management structures (mir) set up for peasants.

• Implementation Challenges:

  • Emancipation took longer than anticipated, leading to lingering obligations for many peasants until 1881.

Results of Emancipation

• Varied Outcomes:

  • Some kulaks succeeded, expanding land for profitable production; others sought urban opportunities.

  • Many peasants felt cheated due to inadequate land and burdensome redemption payments.

• Continued Social Issues:

  • Persistent subsistence farming techniques and traditional practices hindered agricultural progress.

  • Rising tensions and dissatisfaction among peasants and landowners led to protests and demands for further reforms.

Further Reforms Following Emancipation

• Military Reforms (1874-75):

  • Dmitry Milutin focused on creating a modern, efficient army and raising conscription inclusivity.

  • Structural changes led to better training but persistent supply chain troubles and leadership issues remained evident in army performance.

• Local Government Reforms (1864):

  • Established elected local councils (zemstva) to replace nobles’ authoritative roles, providing a degree of representation.

  • Disadvantaged status of peasants remained as the nobility still dominated the hierarchical systems.

• Judiciary Reforms (1864):

  • Shift to a more equitable legal system with public courts and presumption of innocence, yet elite dominated outcomes.

  • Formed a foundation for civic legal understanding, elevating legal standards despite disparities in treatment.

• Education Reforms (1863-64):

  • Focused on improving literacy; universities gained autonomy, leading to increased radical thought among students.

  • Expanded educational access for women, showcasing shifts towards inclusivity and modernizing education.

• Censorship Reforms (1858-70):

  • Initial liberalization of press restrictions, allowing socio-political critiques, but soon reverted due to critical backlash.

Summary of Alexander II’s Reforms

• Scope of Change:

  • Extensive changes in social, political, military, and economic structures of the Russian Empire post-emancipation.

  • Transition towards a more mobile labor force and enhanced grain production, financing industrial growth.

  • Although the noble class saw retained influence, emerging professional classes gained momentum, setting the stage for future expectations for reform.

• Conclusion:

  • Alexander II's reforms marked a pivotal shift in Russian governance, but unmet expectations for further reforms posed risks for the autocracy.

  • Reform initiatives, though piecemeal, highlighted a growing demand for governmental accountability and participation among the populace.