Introduction to Computer Concepts and History of Computers

Computer

• electronic device that takes data, processes the data according to a series of instructions called a program and produces information.

• an electronic device capable of performing mathematical and logical operations.

• an electronic system designed to manipulate data.

• IPO (input, process, output)

Program

• series of instruction that a computer must follow in order to process data into information

Capabilities of Computer

1. It has the ability to perform mathematical and logical operations.

2. It has the ability to store or remember a great amount and variety of information and retrieve or recall the information needed almost instantly.

3. It has the ability to handle large volumes of repetitive tasks accurately over a long period of time.

4. It can communicate with its operators and other machines.

5. It has the ability to control errors and check itself.

Limitations of Computers

1. The computer functions only when input and the necessary instructions to process the information have been provided by a human being.

2. It can detect but generally cannot correct inaccurate entries by itself.

3. It is subject to occasional breakdown or computer malfunction because of power failures, computer failure, humidity, temperature and maintenance

Characteristics of Computers

1. MACHINE

2. ELECTRONIC

3. AUTOMATIC

4. MANIPULATE DATA

5. MEMORY

6. LOGIC FUNCTIONS

Computers can be used in:

1. Business

2. Home

3. Entertainment

4. Scientific Research

5. Military

Benefits of Computers

1. Storing or memorizing large amounts of information.

2. Quickly recalling a single piece of information.

3. Rapidly performing a series of sequential tasks.

4. Carrying out a specific action based on sensor reading or other quantifiable information.

Types of Computers

1. Mainframes

2. Personal Computers

   1. Desktop Computers

   2. Laptop Computers

3. Tablet PCs

4. Media Centre

5. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

History: Earliest Computing Device

ABACUS

• considered as the 1st manual data processing device

• developed in China in the 12th century A.D.

• performs arithmetic calculations

NAPIER’S BONES

• developed by a Scottish mathematician John Napier

• obtain products & quotients of large numbers

OUGHTRED’S SLIDE RULE

• invented by William Oughtred in 17th century

• arithmetic operations could be done by simply sliding the rulers

PASCAL’S CALCULATOR

• developed by a French mathematician Blaise Pascal in 1645

• could add & subtract numbers up to 8 digits

LEIBNIZ CALCULATOR

• invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1694

• it utilized the same techniques for addition & subtraction as Pascal’s device but could also perform multiplication, division & square root

BABBAGE ANALYTICAL ENGINE

• designed to use 2 types of cards: operation cards & variable cards

• developed by Charles Babbage, the Father of Modern Computers. It is not because of the machine he build but rather his ideas became the basis for modern computation devices

• Augusta Ada Byron, worked with Babbage & considered as the First female Programmer

Hollerith’s Punched Card Machine

• developed by a statistician named Herman Hollerith in 1880 considered as the 1st commercially successful data processing machine.

• Hollerith made a census machine used by the US Bureau of Census in 1890

1800’s

George Boole

• “Boolean Algebra”

1930’s

Alan Turing

• “General Purpose Programmable Computer”

John Atanasoff

• “first electronic digital purpose computer” or “Atanasoff Berry Computer”.

1940’s

Grace Hopper

• Introduced the concept of debugging or finding errors

ENIAC

• Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

EDVAC

• Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

EDSAC

• Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer

Stanislaw Ulam

• “computer simulation”

1960’s

Ted Hoff

• microprocessor chip

1970’s

Paul Allen and William Howard (Bill Gates)

• The co-founders of the Microsoft Corporation

1980’s

Tim Berners-Lee

• proposed/invented the World Wide Web (www)

Computer Classifications

1. According to age and component generations

2. According to size

3. According to Operation

4. According to Application

5. According to Design

According to Age and Component Generations

First Generation

• VACUUM TUBES

  • slow

  • expensive

  • fragile

  • very large

Second Generation (Assembly Language and first OS)

• TRANSISTORS (transfer resistance)

  • much simpler

  • much smaller

  • much cheaper

  • more reliable

  • no warm up

  • much faster

Third Generation

• INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

  • miniaturization added to all the existing benefits

  • enabled un-thought of possibilities

Fourth Generation (High-level Programming Language)

• Medium Scale Integration (MSI)

• Large Scale Integration (LSI)

Fifth Generation

• ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

  • making computers behave like humans

  • Games Playing, Expert Systems, Natural Language, Neural Networks, Robotics

According to Size

Mainframe

• used to describe large computers. It can process large amounts of data at very high speed, hold up to millions of characters in its storage and support many input, output, and storage devices.

Minicomputers

• relatively smaller and slower computers compared to mainframe.

Microcomputers

• typically fits a desktop. Inside of it is microprocessor, which has control capability for memory and I/O access, and which contains an arithmetic logic unit all on a single, chip less than one quarter of an inch square

According to Operation

Digital Computers

• operates essentially on the basis of distinct (discrete) “on” and “off” states which can be represented by 1’s and 0’s referred to as binary digits.

Analog Computers

• operate by measuring continuous physical or electrical magnitudes such as pressure, current, voltage, length or shaft rotations.

Hybrid Computers

• combination of the desirable qualities of the analog and digital computers

According to Applications

Scientific Computers

• computers that can manipulate numbers according to sophisticated formulas and keep track of the results to several decimal places.

Business Computers

• computers that usually handle large volumes of data for input, perform simple calculations like addition and subtraction and print vast numbers of reports.

According to Design

General Purpose Computers

• designed to perform a variety of operations by simply changing instructions.

Special Purpose Computers

• built for specific operation and usually satisfies the needs for a particular type of problem.

Operating System

System Software vs. Application Software

System Software

• The operating system and utility programs that control a computer system and allow you to use your computer

  • Enables the boot process, launches applications, transfers files, controls hardware configuration, manages files on the hard drive, and protects from unauthorized use

Application Software

• Programs that allow a user to perform specific tasks on a computer

  • Word processing, playing games, browsing the Web, listening to music, etc.

The Operating System

Operating System

• A collection of programs that manage and coordinate the activities taking place within a computer

• Acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer and between the application programs and system hardware

• “Control program”, controls the execution of computer programs to prevent errors and misuse of resources of computer systems

Functions of an Operating System

• Interfacing with Users (typically via a GUI)

• Booting the Computer

  • Kernel - basic unit of OS

• Configuring Devices

• Managing Network Connections

  • TCIP - Transmission Computer Internet Protocol

  • Ping - a command to test network connectivity

• Managing and Monitoring Resources and Jobs

• File Management

  • Path - shows the folders you must travel through to get to a particular file

• Security

Processing Techniques for Increased Efficiency

Multitasking

• The ability of an operating system to have more than one program (task) open at one time

  • CPU rotates between tasks

  • Switching is done quickly

  • Appears as though all programs executing at the same time

Multithreading

• The ability to rotate between multiple threads so that processing is completed faster and more efficiently

• Thread

  • Sequence of instructions within a program that is independent of other thread

  • There is prioritization in a single process with numerous tasks inside

Sequential Processing - tasks are performed one right after the other

Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing

• Multiple processors (or multiple cores) are used in one computer system to perform work more efficiently

• Tasks are performed sequentially

  • In multiprocessing, tasks are divided to each core

  • In parallel processing, cores cooperate on one task at a time

Simultaneous processing - multiple tasks are performed at the exact same time

Memory Management

• Optimizing the use of main memory (RAM)

• Virtual memory

  • Memory-management technique that uses hard drive space as additional RAM

Buffering and Spooling

• Buffer

  • Area in RAM or on the hard drive designated to hold data that is used by different hardware devices or programs

• Buffering or Spooling

  • Placing items in a buffer so they can be retrieved by the appropriate device when needed

Buffering

Spooling

Differences Among Operating Systems

Command Line Interface

• Require users to input commands using the keyboard

Graphical User Interface

• Graphics based interface

• Used by most operating systems

Categories of Operating Systems

• Personal (Desktop) Operating Systems

  • Designed to be installed on a single computer

• Server (Network) Operating Systems

  • Designed to be installed on a network server

  • Client computers still use a personal operating system

  • Server operating system controls access to network resources

• Mobile and embedded operating systems are also common

The Types of Processors Supported

• Desktop, mobile, server processors

• 32-bit or 64-bit CPUs

• 32-b programs can’t run in 64-b CPUs

Support for Virtualization and Other Technologies

• New types of buses

• Virtualization

• Mobility

• Security concerns

• Power-consumption concerns

• Touch and gesture input

• The move to cloud

Operating Systems for Personal Computers and Servers

DOS (Disk Operating System)

• DOS traditionally used a command-line interface

• Dominant operating system in the 1980s and early 1990s

• PC-DOS

  • Created originally for IBM microcomputers

• MS-DOS

  • Created for use with IBM-compatible computers

• Can enter DOS commands in Windows

Windows

• The predominant personal operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation

• Windows 1.0 through Windows 11

• Windows 1.0 released in 1985

• Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.x were operating environments for DOS

• Designed for personal computers

Windows NT (New Technology)

• First 32-bit version of Windows designed for high-end workstations and servers

• Replaced by Windows 2000

Windows XP

• Replaced both Windows 2000 and Windows Me

Windows Vista

• Replaced Windows XP

• Introduced the Aero interface and Sidebar feature

Windows 7

• Released in late 2009

• Home Premium (primary version for home users)

• Professional (primary version for businesses)

• Libraries feature gives you virtual folders

Windows 8

• Designed to be used with smartphones, desktop computers, with or without a keyboard or mouse

• Supports multi-touch input

• Includes Start screen, tiles, and charms bar

Windows 10

• Replaced Windows 8 and 8.1

• Includes new Start menu, Microsoft Edge, Cortana, Multiple desktops and Task view, Action Center and Tablet mode

Windows 11

• Current version of Windows

• On June 24, 2021, Windows 11 was announced as the successor to Windows 10 during a livestream. The new operating system was designed to be more user-friendly and understandable. It was released on October 5, 2021. Windows 11 will be a free upgrade to all Windows 10 users.

Windows Server

• The version of Windows designed for server use

• Windows Server 2022 is the latest version

• Supports both virtualization and cloud computing

Windows Home Server

• Preinstalled on home server devices

• Designed to provide services for a home network

• Can be set up to back up all devices in the home on a regular basis

Mac OS

• Proprietary operating system for computers made by Apple Corporation

• Based on the UNIX operating system

• Originally set the standard for graphical user interfaces

• Latest version: macOS 14 Sonoma

unix

• Operating system developed in the late 1960s for midrange servers

• Multi User, multitasking operating system

• More expensive, requires high level of technical knowledge; harder to install, maintain, and upgrade

• “UNIX” initially referred to the original UNIX operating system, now refers to a group of similar operating systems based on UNIX

• Single UNIX Specification

  • A standardized UNIX environment

Linux

• Developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991—resembles UNIX but was developed independently

• Is open-source software; has been collaboratively modified by volunteer programmers all over the world

• Originally used a command line interface, most recent versions use a GUI

• Strong support from mainstream companies, such as IBM, NVIDIA, HP, Dell, and Novell

• Individuals and organizations are switching to Linux and other open source software because of cost

chrome OS

• The first cloud operating system

• Essentially is the Chrome Web browser redesigned to run a computer, in addition to accessing Web resources

• Replaces traditional desktop operating systems

• Is currently only available pre installed on Chrome devices

Operating Systems for Mobile Devices

Windows Phone 8, Windows RT, and Windows Embedded

• Windows Phone

• Latest version of Windows designed for smartphones

• Windows Phone 8 is based on the Windows 8 operating system

Windows RT

• Designed for tablet use

Windows Embedded

• Designed primarily for consumer and industrial devices that are not personal computers

Operating Systems for Mobile Phones and Other Devices

Android

• Linux-based operating system created with current mobile device capabilities in mind

• Can create applications that take full advantage of all the features a mobile device has to offer

• Open platform

• Current version is Android 14 – Upside Down Cake

• Devices support multitasking, multiple cores, NFC mobile payment transactions, Internet phone calls

iOS

• Designed for Apple Mobile phones and mobile devices

• Current version is iOS 17

• Supports multitasking

• Includes Safari Web browser, the Siri intelligent assistant, Facetime video calling, AirDrop to send items to others, and apps for email, messaging, music, and search

Blackberry OS and Blackberry PlayBook OS

• Designed for Blackberry devices

Mobile Linux

• Other mobile operating systems based on Linux besides Android and iOs

• Ubuntu, webOS, Firefox OS, and Tizen

Utility Programs

• Software that performs a specific task, usually related to managing or maintaining the computer system

• Many utilities are built into operating systems (for finding files, viewing images, backing up files, etc.)

• Utilities are also available as stand-alone products and as suites

Uninstall and Cleanup Utilities

• Uninstall utilities remove programs from your hard drive without leaving bits and pieces behind

• Important to properly uninstall programs, not just delete them

• Cleanup utilities delete temporary files

  • Files still in Recycle Bin

  • Temporary Internet files

  • Temporary installation files

File Compression Programs

• Reduce the size of files to optimize storage space and transmission time

• Both zip and unzip files

• WinZip (Windows users) and Stuffit (Mac users)

Backup and Recovery Utilities

• Make the backup and restoration process easier

• Creating a backup means making a duplicate copy of important files

  • Can use a recordable or rewritable CD or DVD disc, a USB flash drive, or an external hard drive

• Good backup procedures are critical for everyone

  • Individuals should back up important documents, e-mail, photos, home video, etc.

  • Performing a backup can include backing up an entire computer (so it can be restored at a later date)

  • Can do the backup manually or use backup utility programs (stand alone or those built into operating systems)

  • Can also backup individual files are they are modified

Antivirus, Antispyware, Firewalls, and Other

Security Programs

• Security Concerns

  • Viruses, spyware, identity theft, phishing schemes

• Security programs protect computers and users

  • Antivirus programs

  • Anti Spyware programs

  • Firewalls

  • Many are included in Windows and other operating systems

File Management Programs

Enable the user to perform file management tasks

• Looking at the contents of a storage medium

• Copying, moving, and renaming files and folders

• Deleting files and folders

• File management program in Windows 8 is File Explorer

  • To copy or move files, use the Home tab to copy (or cut) and then paste

  • To delete files, use the Delete key on the keyboard or the Home tab

Search Tools

• Designed to search for documents and other files on the user’s hard drive

  • Windows 8 has Search charm to search for files, apps, and Store items

• Are often integrated into file management programs

• Third-party search tools are also available

Diagnostic and Disk Management Programs

• Diagnostic programs evaluate your system and make recommendations for fixing any errors found

• Disk management programs diagnose and repair problems related to your hard drive

THE FUTURE OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Will continue to become more user-friendly

• Will eventually be driven primarily by a voice interface, touch, and/or gesture interface

• Likely to continue to become more stable and self healing

• Will likely continue to include security and other technological improvements as they become available

• Will almost certainly include improvements in the areas of synchronizing and coordinating data and activities among a person’s various computing and communicating devices

• May be used primarily to access software available through the Internet or other networks

DATA

• A collection or independent raw facts and figures (numbers, letters, symbols or combination of these)

INFORMATION

• Data that is made meaningful to someone. Information

INFORMATION

DESIRABLE QUALITIES

• Relevance – all of the information supplied must be important to the person receiving it.

• Completeness – no vital information should be missed out.

• Timeliness – information must be available when in time of need arises.

• Accuracy – Correctness or validity of information is necessary because no sound decision is made of poor information.

• Presentable – understandability of information is a function of presentation.

DATA PROCESSING

• Composed of a series of activities responsible for transforming data into information.

DATA PROCESSING

CONCEPTS

INPUT – PROCESS – OUTPUT (I-P-O) Model

• A conceptual framework wherein input in the form of data or information is processed which result in the generation of an output basically in the form of information.

Data Processing Cycle

• The flow of data from the moment it is recorded until the time it becomes a usable piece of information is traced taking into consideration what is actually done on the data in the process of transforming it into information.

INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT (I-P-O) MODEL

DATA PROCESSING METHODS

1. Manual Data Processing – implies the extend use of manual labor in the processing of data (slow, relatively inaccurate and could not support the rapidly expanding information requirements).

2. Mechanical Data Processing – involves the use of machines or devices that alter, transmit and direct applied forces (greater computational speed).

3. Electromechanical Data Processing – involves the use of mechanical devices with electric motors allowing them to carry out any operation.

   • Printers which give a permanent record

4. Electronic Data Processing – it has superior capacity to perform computations and other functions at incredible speeds.

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

MAJOR PHASES

1. Origination Phase – involves basic capturing and recording of data (filling in the form in which its data is called source documents).

• Sales order, cheque, materials requisition slip, birth certificate

1. Input Preparation Phase – it is concerned with the accuracy and completeness of data to ensure data integrity.

Minimize Data Error by:

1. Editing – process of selecting significant data and eliminating that, which does not need to be recorded for processing.

2. Coding – process that reduces the amount of data to be processed through the use of a code (a symbolic representation of a thing or a fact comprised of numeric or alphabetic characters).

3. Verifying – checking the accuracy of data gathered.

4. Processing Phase – conversion of data into useful and meaningful information.

Kinds of Processes:

1. Classifying – systematically grouping data into classes of common characteristics or attributes.

2. Sorting – process of physically separating classified data and rearranging these into a predetermined sequence (numerically or alphabetically, ascending or descending order).

3. Calculating – involves arithmetical processes.

4. Summarizing – process of decreasing the level of details of data. It involves listing or tabulating data and totaling each list.

5. Output Preparation Phase – result or information is generated.

Several Ways How Information is provided to the User:

1. Reproduction

2. Communication – could be transmitted in printed or oral form

SYSTEM

• A system is a group of organized interdependent components that interact with and complement one another to achieve one or more predetermined goals.

SYSTEM: CHARACTERISTICS

1. Unitary Whole – a system is the sum of its parts glued into one distinct entity.

2. Composed of Parts – a system is made up of functionally oriented parts.

3. Bounded – boundaries separate the system from its environment.

4. System Parts Interact With Each Other – the parts are related and have definite interactions and interdependencies.

5. Hierarchical – Each system is likely to be part of another larger system just as it is likely to be divided into subsystems.

6. Goal-Oriented – The components all work toward a particular purpose of function.

SYSTEM: BASIC COMPONENTS

1. Inputs – elements that enter the system and take the form of energy, materials or information.

2. Processes – actions on the inputs that converts it to outputs.

3. Outputs – the finished product, which resulted from processing the inputs.

4. Environment – the set of all outside elements or focuses that influence the system.

SYSTEM TYPES

1. Information System – a group of related activities (manual or computerized) designed to collect, process, generate and exchange information for the exclusive support of a major functional area to fulfill the problemsolving and decision-making information needs of business workers of the organization.

   • Personnel Management Information System, Financial Management Information System Types of System

2. Application System – a group of related activities designed to support a very specific function.

   • Payroll System, Accounting System

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

HARDWARE – supported by auxiliary or peripheral

• computer equipment or physical components that are used in data preparation, data input, data storage, data computation and logic comparisons, control functions and outputting information

• Central processing unit (CPU) and the storage, input, output and communication devices

SOFTWARE – non-physical components such as the machine coded instructions used by the different hardware facilities. It refers to all computer programs which direct and control the computer hardware in data processing

• SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

  • A collection of programs that facilitates the programming and operation of the computer. An integral part of the computer system itself (supervises the operations of the CPU, controls the input/output functions of the computer system, translates programming languages, and provides other support services)

    • Disk Operating System (DOS), Database Management System (DBMS), interpreters and compilers, and data communication software

• APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

  • Not an integral part of the computer system. It may be written to solve a specific problem and may be written by programmers or may be purchased or leased from computer vendors, software companies or other computer users.

PEOPLEWARE – refers to the personnel who manage, designs the application, writes and encodes the program.