Foundations of Learning Disabilities — Comprehensive Bullet-Point Notes
Foundations
Overview: This chapter introduces the foundations of learning disabilities (LD), including history, definitions, prevalence, causes/characteristics, identification, RTI, assessment, instructional content, procedures, environment, technology, and general-education considerations. It also presents Justin as a case example to illustrate identification and instruction in practice.
Chapter structure: Two halves
First half: foundational information (history, definitions, prevalence, causes, characteristics, identification procedures).
Second half: educational implications (instructional content, procedures, environment, technology) and general-education considerations.
Core idea: There is wide variability among LD; no single prototype exists. Instruction must be tailored to each student’s unique profile rather than just labeling.
A Brief History of Learning Disabilities
Foundational phase (1800–1930): brain-based research; injury-to-function relationships; early ideas linked LD to perceptual issues (e.g., perseveration, hyperactivity, figure/ground problems).
Transition phase (1930–1960): brain research applied to children; concepts like minimal brain injury/dysfunction emerged; neurological explanations gained traction.
Integration phase (1960–1974): term “learning disability” coined; LD begins to be recognized within school programs; focus on perceptual skills (later shown to be flawed but spurred research).
Important event (1963): Dr. Sam Kirk’s speech popularized the term LD; warned against using labels as sole diagnostic information but acknowledged LD as a useful label for problems in language, reading, and communication.
Current phase (1975–present): emphasis on academic, behavioral, cognitive, and language interventions; most research centers on strategies and supports within the general education curriculum.
Definitions of Learning Disabilities
IDEA definition (1968, updated through PL 94-142; revised for IDEA 2004):
General: Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest in difficulties with listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or mathematics, due to conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
Exclusions: Not primarily due to visual/hearing/motor disabilities, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
Significance: Broad definition allows variety of students to be identified; includes inclusion and exclusion criteria.
NJCLD definition (1997):
Similarities to IDEA in listing deficits in academic and cognitive areas, but eliminates the psychological processing deficit requirement.
Exclusion criteria redefined: LD cannot be the result of other disabilities or extrinsic factors, but coexists can occur.
Not adopted by Congress, but reflects professional concerns with the federal definition.
APA DSM-5 (2013) definition: Specific Learning Disorder
Developmental disorder beginning by school age; ongoing problems in reading, writing, math.
Broadly based on clinical criteria; does not require a strict “discrepancy” with IQ.
Exclusion factors to rule out other causes (e.g., intellectual disabilities).
Severity levels: mild, moderate, severe (based on clinical judgment, not fixed indicators).
Primarily clinical use; educators should be aware of its existence.
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities
Estimates and scope:
Approximately 3.5
eq 3.5
ot= ? In the text: ~3.5 ext{ ext{%}} of school-aged children identified with LD.In 2017, about 3.4 ext{ ext{%}} of students aged 6–21 received LD services under IDEA, Part B (USDOE, 2019).
LD is the largest disability category under IDEA, constituting about 35.2 ext{%} of all students served under IDEA, Part B.
Trends over time:
LD numbers grew for many years, likely due to increased awareness and reclassification from other disabilities (e.g., intellectual disability) into LD.
In recent years, growth has stopped or LD identifications have decreased since 2000; possible reasons include shifts to ADHD and autism diagnoses, improved reading instruction, emphasis on early childhood education, and RTI adoption.
Typical classroom impact:
In a typical class of 30 students, about 1–2 students may be identified with LD.
Demographics and geography:
Gender: LD more commonly identified in boys; about 66 ext{%} male among LD served.
Ethnicity: LD is most prevalent across racial/ethnic groups; boys may be overrepresented due to referral bias and biological vulnerability arguments.
Black and Hispanic students overrepresented in LD in many states; in Nevada, LD identifies 16% Black vs. 9.9% Black in total enrollment.
Regional variation: LD prevalence by state varies from about 19.8 ext{%} (Kentucky) to 60.4 ext{%} (Iowa); variability likely due to different identification criteria.
Causes and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities
No single agreed-upon cause; multiple interacting factors recognized.
Broad causes grouped as:
Neurological
Genetic
Environmental (prenatal, perinatal, postnatal)
Neurological causes
LD is conceptually linked to neurological factors in the IDEA definition.
The brain basis includes: injury, development delay, or structural differences.
Early labels like Minimal Brain Injury suggested brain injury; later view emphasized developmental lags rather than injury.
Evidence of neurological differences in LD:
Dyslexia and planum temporale differences (smaller planum temporale in dyslexia).
Functional MRI (fMRI) shows different brain activation patterns during reading tasks in LD vs non-LD individuals.
White matter pathway disruptions identified in math and reading disabilities.
Overall, brain imaging studies support a neurological basis for LD in many cases.
Genetic causes
Genetic basis suggested by family and twin studies; higher concordance for reading problems among identical twins.
Examples: dyscalculia and word recognition problems show familial patterns; prevalence higher in families of individuals with LD.
Early observations trace back to Hinshelwood (1905).
Environmental causes
Environmental factors can contribute to LD-like problems, though IDEA excludes environmental disadvantage as a root cause of LD.
Prenatal factors: maternal drug/alcohol use, smoking during pregnancy; can lead to more severe problems (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome) and increased risk for LD.
Perinatal factors: delivery complications, anoxia (loss of oxygen), potential brain injury; low birth weight associated with poorer school performance.
Postnatal factors: infections (e.g., meningitis) and exposure to neurotoxins (e.g., lead-based paint exposure); ongoing lead exposure remains a public health concern (blood lead levels above reference thresholds in children).
Socioeconomic status: poverty and low SES historically linked to learning problems; factors like access to resources, and supports may influence LD identification and outcomes.
Characteristics of Students with Learning Disabilities
Not all LD students share the same profile; 1963 task force identified 10 commonly observed characteristics of minimal brain dysfunction/LD (these are historical and non-exclusive):
1) Hyperactivity
2) Perceptual-motor impairments
3) Emotional lability
4) General coordination deficits
5) Disorders of attention
6) Impulsivity
7) Disorders of memory and thinking
8) Specific learning disabilities
9) Disorders of speech and hearing
10) Equivocal neurological signsToday, LD characteristics span both academic and nonacademic domains, including:
Reading, mathematics, writing, expressive/receptive language
Cognition (attention, memory, metacognition)
Social and emotional functioning
Reading-related characteristics (most common LD area, though not universal):
Up to about 90 ext{%} of LD students have reading problems at some point
Phonological awareness deficits; rapid automatic naming (RAN); word recognition; reading comprehension challenges
Word recognition problems involve phonics, sight words, context clues, and structural analysis
Reading comprehension can be affected by background knowledge, text structure, and vocabulary deficits
Very poor readers often show severe decoding and comprehension gaps; the Matthew effect emphasizes the importance of early intervention
Mathematics characteristics:
Difficulties with basic facts, calculations, math concepts, and problem solving
Word problems and math anxiety commonly observed; retrieval from long-term memory can be challenging
Working memory (both visual and auditory) emerges as a key factor in math and other areas
Writing and written expression:
Handwriting and spelling difficulties; punctuation, vocabulary, and sentence structure problems
Writing tends to be more challenging as a process; LD often affects writing quality, organization, and output
Meta-analysis shows LD students tend to have lower writing quality, organization, vocabulary, sentence fluency, and mechanics
Expressive and receptive language:
Many LD students have expressive language deficits more so than receptive; some LD students have strong verbal skills (nonverbal learning disabilities)
Cognitive-related characteristics:
Attention, memory, strategy use, and metacognition (thinking about thinking)
IQ ranges widely; LD can include students from low-average to gifted IQ ranges; LD is not equivalent to low intelligence
Attention and memory:
Attention problems: difficulty focusing or distractibility; can be “too little attention” or “too many stimuli” problems
Memory: short-term and working memory deficits common; memory deficits related to retrieval, organization, and strategy use
Effective memory supports rely on strategy instruction and metacognitive skills
Metacognition:
Difficulties with planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning; metacognitive strategies are often underdeveloped
Social and emotional characteristics:
Many LD students have social skills deficits; higher likelihood of anxiety and depression; vulnerability to learned helplessness; low self-concept and self-efficacy
How Are Students with Learning Disabilities Identified?
Screening and initial identification:
Often initiated by general education teachers through classroom performance and observations; universal screening may occur (as part of RTI).
prereferral interventions are used to address needs before formal referral.
Referral and evaluation:
If prereferral interventions are ineffective, student is referred for comprehensive evaluation by a multidisciplinary team.
Federal guidelines advise using multiple sources of information; RTI data can inform eligibility decisions but should not be used alone to determine LD.
Identification criteria historically and currently:
Previously: severe discrepancy between intelligence and achievement in key areas (oral expression, listening comprehension, reading, mathematics, etc.). This approach often delayed identification (wait-to-fail).
2004 IDEA: RTI integrated; eligibility can consider responses to scientific, research-based interventions; RTI is allowed in all states; however, RTI alone is not a replacement for comprehensive evaluation; some argue against relying solely on RTI.
Comprehensive evaluation: recommended to include IQ/achievement testing and processing measures; language/academic tests; sometimes processing-speed measures; to rule out other causes and understand profile.
RTI: response to intervention as a decision-making framework
Core principles (USDOE):
1) High-quality, evidence-based instruction in general ed
2) Continuous progress monitoring
3) Screening for academic/behavioral problems
4) Multiple levels (tiers) of increasingly intensive instructionThree-tier model (typical depiction):
Tier 1: universal, validated instruction in general ed with weekly progress monitoring
Tier 2: targeted group interventions; data-driven decisions about moving to Tier 3
Tier 3: intensive, often one-on-one instruction; may lead to an eligibility determination; can include a comprehensive evaluation
Approaches within RTI:
Problem-solving approach: team selects interventions tailored to the student
Standard Treatment Protocol (STP) approach: one universal intervention used for all in need of extra help
Many implementations blend approaches
Advantages of RTI: early identification and intervention, reduced bias, data-driven decisions, supports for many at-risk students, improved schoolwide achievement; can help identify who needs more intensive services; may reduce wait-to-fail time
Limitations/concerns: RTI should not delay special education services; controversial questions remain about duration/intensity thresholds, criteria for responsiveness, differences from pre-referral interventions, and whether RTI alone suffices for LD identification
The Use of Standardized Testing
Role of standardized tests in LD identification:
Intelligence tests (IQ) and achievement tests are commonly used; processing tests and language/other cognitive assessments may be used depending on the profile.
Even with the move away from a strict IQ-achievement discrepancy, IQ and achievement tests remain important for understanding the student’s profile and eligibility decisions.
Some states set IQ cutoffs; nevertheless, evaluation should rely on multiple information sources and not rely solely on a single test.
Process tests:
Tests of processing (perceptual processing, memory, phonological processing) have been used to identify processing deficits related to LD (though the field debates which processing constructs are most valid).
What and How Do I Teach Students with Learning Disabilities?
General approach:
Most LD students learn within the general education curriculum, with intensive instruction in both the process of learning and the content (reading, writing, math, study skills).
Instruction should address declarative knowledge (the ‘what’), procedural knowledge (the ‘how’), and conditional knowledge (the ‘when/why’), to foster self-regulation and transfer of learning.
Areas of instructional content: declarative, procedural, conditional knowledge
Declarative knowledge: facts to be learned (e.g., government branches, state capitals)
Procedural knowledge: cognitive strategies (how to learn) such as self-questioning, outlining, and memory strategies
Conditional knowledge: when/how to apply strategies; metacognitive awareness
Focus areas by content domain:
Reading: decoding and comprehension; National Reading Panel (2000) identified five essential components: ext{phonological awareness}, ext{phonics}, ext{fluency}, ext{vocabulary}, ext{comprehension}
Phonological awareness: segmenting sounds; critical foundation for decoding; instruction can improve reading outcomes; phonemic awareness and letter-sound knowledge are precursors to phonics (progression from spoken to written language)
Phonics: systematic, explicit instruction; blending/segmenting to decode; use of phonograms after decoding mastery
Fluency: rapid, accurate word recognition; repeated readings with corrective feedback to build speed; fluency correlates with comprehension; practice aims for ≥100 words read correctly per minute in some protocols
Vocabulary: direct instruction; memory aids and semantic mapping; interactive activities support learning of word meanings
Reading comprehension: development of cognitive/metacognitive strategies; story mapping, CSR (Collaborative Strategic Reading), PALS (Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies); repeated silent readings can help comprehension in older students
Writing/written language: treat writing as a process (prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, final draft); explicit instruction in the writing process improves quality, organization, and mechanics; use of COPS (Capitalization, Overall appearance, Punctuation, Spelling) during editing; writing strategies linked to better performance; use of graphic organizers to support planning and organization
Mathematics: explicit instruction, self-regulation, and cognitive strategies; early numeracy skills predict later math achievement; focus on computation, understanding math concepts, and problem solving; use of metacognitive strategies for word problems; emphasize conceptual understanding and procedural fluency; Big/Bigger/Borrow mnemonic for borrowing in subtraction and other strategy prompts
Study skills: listening, note-taking, time management, comprehension of textbooks, memory strategies, test-taking skills; planning and organization are crucial; strategy instruction linked to content gains
Transition planning (secondary focus):
IDEA emphasis on least restrictive environment; supports postsecondary education and employment; transition planning includes goal setting, self-advocacy, independent living, vocational training, community-based instruction; collaboration with postsecondary services is recommended; technology supports are emphasized for postsecondary success (e.g., websites, word processing, etc.)
English Language Learners (ELLs) with LD:
Effective practices include visuals, cooperative learning, native-language support for organizing thoughts, sufficient oral/written language opportunities, rich vocabulary development, simplified multisensory instruction, adapted textbooks, and attention to family culture and background in technology use
Instructional strategies synthesis:
Most effective models combine direct instruction with strategy instruction; cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction is central to LD intervention; learning strategies curricula (e.g., LSC from KU) provide structured, stepwise procedures for teaching strategies; content-enhancement routines support teaching in general education content areas
Mnemonics, keywords, and attribution retraining are highlighted strategies to improve memory, strategy use, and motivation
Instructional Content and Procedures (Detailed)
Content areas and learning processes:
Reading: decoding and comprehension; five essential components as above; emphasis on early intervention due to Matthew effect
Written language: writing as a process; explicit instruction in planning, drafting, revising; use of writing strategies and feedback; focus on high-quality, well-organized writing; practice should be meaningful and connected to real tasks
Mathematics: explicit instruction; emphasis on computation and problem solving; use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies; early prevention (first-grade programs) can reduce LD prevalence in math; word problems require strategy instruction
Study skills: organization, memory, test-taking, time management; use of planners and memory strategies; significant gains reported with strategy instruction
Instructional procedures with LD students:
Task analysis: break tasks into smaller steps; sequence steps from simple to complex; prerequisites for later steps; supports cumulative learning; example: subtracting 1–10 from 1–10 with renaming progression; teacher adds steps as needed
Direct Instruction (explicit instruction): Rosenshine & Stevens model; components include daily review, presentation, guided practice, independent practice, and weekly/monthly reviews; emphasis on modeling with thinking aloud; practice goals (often ~85% correct in guided practice) and feedback; post-lesson review (post organizer) and generalization checks; weekly/monthly reviews ensure retention
Cognitive and metacognitive strategies instruction: teach how to learn; combine cognitive strategies (e.g., self-questioning, rereading) with metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring, checking outcomes); integrate with regular content
Learning Strategies Curriculum (LSC): comprehensive secondary-level program teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies; field-tested and structured with step-by-step procedures; supports academic content and social interaction; Content-Enhancement Routines (teacher-focused) support engagement with content-area material
Mnemonics and attribution retraining:
Mnemonics: acronyms, acrostics, keyword method, rhymes, songs; examples include HOMES for Great Lakes; LETTER for friendly letters; keyword method steps for learning terms
Attribution retraining: teach students to attribute success to effort/strategy use, not luck or ability alone; provide examples of positive self-statements that reinforce strategy use and effort
Practical notes on LD instruction with diverse learners:
Instruction should not rely solely on software or technology; technology supports instruction but does not replace direct instruction
For English language learners with LD: visuals, cooperative learning, native-language use, extended practice with language and vocabulary, simplified and multisensory approaches; emphasis on clear directions and progress monitoring
Use of technology in instruction: word processors, graphic organizers, speech-to-text, reading supports, educational software, and adaptive tools; maintain focus on instructional goals and ensure hardware/software matches needs; consider family/cultural context when introducing technology
The Instructional Environment and Technology
Instructional environment essentials:
Structure and organization reduce chaos and support successful performance
Class layout influences social interactions and engagement; aim to minimize distractions; ensure visibility for all students; materials are accessible; classroom setup communicates expectations
Preschool environment: structured, efficient, accessible, promotes language and pre-literacy development; dedicated spaces for language stimulation, phonological awareness, reading-readiness, alphabetic principles
Elementary/secondary environment: minimize dead time; spaces for individual work, small group work, and peer tutoring; space should support diverse activities; use of carrels or partitions to reduce distractibility when needed
Grouping options for LD instruction:
One-to-one instruction; small groups (3–6 students); whole class instruction; peer tutoring; classwide peer tutoring (CWPT)
Grouping should be data-driven and flexible; adjust as students progress or as content changes; RTI Tier 2 uses more small-group instruction; Tier 3 often relies on more intensive interventions
Practical implications:
The environment should facilitate interaction with non-disabled peers when possible; collaboration between general and special education teachers is essential
Instructional Technology (Assistive Technology)
Role of assistive technology (AT): defined by IDEA as any item, piece of equipment, or system used to maintain or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities
AT examples: computers, video/recording devices, reading tools, spellers, speech recognition, graphic organizers, WEGO graphic organizers, iPad apps, interactive whiteboards, video modeling, virtual manipulatives, PDAs, digital pens, ebooks
Benefits of AT:
Improves access to the general curriculum, supports independence and engagement, and helps with writing, reading, math, and organization
Can be integrated with explicit/direct instruction for better outcomes
Considerations for AT:
Matching technology to individual needs and classroom context; consider family/cultural preferences and familiarity with technology
Written into IEPs; districts provide devices/services as needed
AT should complement, not replace, high-quality instruction
Preschool technology: early exposure to interactive software; avoid passive media; support for phonological awareness; iPads can offer flexible deployment; ensure age-appropriate and interactive content
Elementary/secondary technology: use for drill/practice, tutoring, games, writing, research, problem solving; use graphic organizers, writing aids, and assistive tools to support content learning; monitoring to ensure engagement with learning goals
Software selection guidelines:
Content free of stereotypes; engaging and interactive; supports decision-making; minimal screen clutter; instructional goals align with school content; modifiable difficulty; multiple activities; incremental levels; few incorrect responses allowed; built-in instructional aids and feedback; supports real-life problem solving; good record-keeping; remember technology is a learning tool, not a replacement for instruction
What Are Some Considerations for the General Education Teacher?
General-education integration:
Most LD students participate in general education with or without some special education support
Accommodations and adaptations help access the general curriculum; parallel or overlapping curricula may be used to align with LD needs
Collaboration between general and special education teachers is common and essential for planning and instruction
Accommodations vs. adaptations/modifications:
Accommodation: change in how information is presented or demonstrated, without changing the content or outcome (e.g., extended time, use of word processors, visual supports, prerecording instructions)
Adaptation/Modification: changes that alter the content level while maintaining the same overall learning objectives (e.g., reduced terms, alternate tasks, different content expectations)
Parallel curriculum: same content, but different learning outcomes tailored to LD needs
Overlapping curriculum: participation in general content with supplementary goals (e.g., social skills, help-seeking)
Collaboration and planning: general and special educators should work together on curriculum decisions, accommodations, instructional strategies, classroom environment planning, and assistive technology needs
Check Your Understanding (Key Review Prompts)
What are the three types of knowledge that should be included in content teaching for LD students? ext{Declarative}, ext{Procedural}, ext{Conditional}
What major content areas often require additional LD supports? Reading, Writing, Mathematics, Study Skills, and Transition planning
What should transition programs for LD students include? Transition planning for postsecondary education and/or workforce, goal setting, self-advocacy, independent living skills, vocational education, and community-based instruction; consider technology supports for postsecondary success
What is task analysis? Breaking a task into smaller, sequenced steps from simple to complex to ensure prerequisite skills are mastered
What are the fundamental components of effective instruction in Direct Instruction? Daily review, presentation, guided practice, independent practice, weekly/monthly reviews; modeling with thinking aloud; post-lesson review and generalization checks
What are cognitive and metacognitive strategies? Cognitive strategies are deliberate techniques to acquire information (e.g., self-questioning, outlining); metacognitive strategies involve planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s own learning (self-regulation)
What are mnemonic devices? Acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, keyword methods used to aid memory; examples include HOMES, LETTER
What is attribution retraining? A process to help students attribute success to effort/strategy use and failure to ineffective strategies; fosters perseverance and strategic use
What strategies are particularly effective for English Language Learners with LD? Visual supports, cooperative learning, native-language planning, opportunities for oral language use, rich vocabulary, simplified multisensory instruction, adapted texts; culturally responsive teaching and clear communication are critical
Chapter Summary (Key Takeaways)
Foundations: LD has a long historical evolution from medical to educational framing; IDEA provides the current federal framework with inclusion/exclusion criteria, RTI, and a broad view of LD.
Prevalence: LD is the most prevalent disability under IDEA, with substantial gender and regional variation; early intervention and RTI may influence prevalence trends.
Causes/Characteristics: LD arises from a combination of neurological, genetic, and environmental factors; many LD students show learning difficulties in reading, math, writing, language, memory, attention, metacognition, and social-emotional areas; no single cause explains all LD cases.
Identification: The RTI framework is central to LD identification in many states; comprehensive evaluation remains essential; RTI is not a stand-alone diagnostic tool; multi-source data are required.
Instruction: Effective LD instruction emphasizes content mastery and process learning; three key knowledge types (declarative, procedural, conditional); structured, explicit instruction (Direct Instruction), task analysis, cognitive/metacognitive strategies, and mnemonic-based supports are central.
Content areas: Reading (phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension), Writing (writing as process, editing strategies), Mathematics (explicit instruction, problem solving, metacognitive strategies), and Study Skills (organization, memory strategies, test-taking).
Transition and ELL: Transition planning and supports for English learners with LD are essential to improve postsecondary outcomes and employment prospects.
Environment and technology: Structured environments, flexible grouping, and effective use of assistive technology enhance access to learning and independent functioning; technology should complement instruction and be tailored to individual needs.
General education teacher: Collaboration, accommodations/adaptations, and inclusive practices are essential to ensure LD students receive appropriate supports within the general education setting.
Appendix: Notable Examples and Concepts Mentioned
Figures referenced: perceptual shift (Figure 4.1), reading/substitution example (Figure 4.2), writing sample (Figure 4.3), RTI model (Figure 4.4), cognitive-metacognitive model (Figure 4.5).
Key terms to remember: dyslexia, dyscalculia, phonological processing, rapid automatic naming (RAN), Matthew effect, nonverbal learning disability, executive function, working memory, content enhancement routines, Learning Strategies Curriculum (LSC), classwide peer tutoring (CWPT).
Important events and institutions: Sam Kirk’s 1963 speech; National Reading Panel (2000); University of Kansas Learning Strategies Curriculum development; RTI as a central framework in LD identification.
Statistics and scope: rising then stabilizing LD prevalence; gender/racial disparities; regional variation in LD identification; LD accounts for a substantial share of IDEA Part B disability services; prevalence in a classroom context is typically 1–2 students per 30.
{3.5\%} of school-age children identified with LD; {3.4\%} of students (6–21) served under IDEA in 2017; LD accounts for about {35.2\%} of IDEA Part B disabilities.
{ ext{Phonological awareness}}, ext{Phonics}, ext{Fluency}, ext{Vocabulary}, ext{Comprehension} are the five essential reading components per the National Reading Panel.
{ ext{Three-tier RTI model: Tier 1 (universal), Tier 2 (focused group), Tier 3 (intensive, often 1:1)}}
Equations and formulas: LD content is largely descriptive; no numeric formulas are central to LD theory, but probabilities and prevalence rates are expressed above in percentages.
Final note
The material emphasizes a pragmatic, student-centered approach: identify individual profiles, tailor instruction, use evidence-based strategies, and ensure collaboration among educators, families, and specialists to promote access and success for students with learning disabilities.