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GI & Nutritional Disorders – Comprehensive Study Notes
GI & Nutritional Disorders – Comprehensive Study Notes
Malnutrition and Nutrition Problems
Definitions
Malnutrition = deficit, excess, or imbalance of essential nutrients.
Sub-types
Over-nutrition: intake exceeds requirements.
Under-nutrition: nutrient/energy intake insufficient for basal needs or added stress; reserves depleted.
Etiology categories (ASPEN taxonomy)
Starvation-related malnutrition (Primary Protein–Calorie Malnutrition)
Chronic starvation, little/no inflammation.
Ex: anorexia nervosa.
Chronic disease–related malnutrition (Secondary PCM)
Sustained mild–moderate inflammation.
Ex: organ failure, cancer, RA, obesity.
Acute disease or injury–related malnutrition
Marked inflammatory response.
Ex: sepsis, burns, trauma, major surgery.
Contributing factors
Socioeconomic (food insecurity, “heat-or-eat” choices, limited support).
Physical illnesses, hospitalisation, GI diseases.
Impaired absorption ↓enzymes, ↓surface area, drug S/E, ↑BMR w/ fever.
Incomplete diets (alcohol/drug use disorders, chronic illness, fad diets).
Starvation process
1st 18 h: use glycogen.
Next: skeletal protein → gluconeogenesis; later 97 % calories from fat.
Fat stores gone ≈ 4–6 wks ⇒ visceral + body protein catabolised.
↓Liver fx → ↓albumin → ↓oncotic P → edema; liver fatty, shrinks.
Death unless protein supplied.
Clinical manifestations
(mild → emaciation)
Dry/scaly skin, brittle nails, hair loss, mouth ulcers, ↓muscle, fatigue.
Mental changes, infection risk, anemia.
Screening / Assessment
The Joint Commission: nutrition screen ≤24 h of admission.
MUST tool (BMI + wt-loss + acute-disease score)
\text{BMI > 20}\Rightarrow0\qquad18.5{-}20\Rightarrow1\qquad<18.5\Rightarrow2
Add wt-loss & \text{NPO}>5 d; total ≥2 = high risk.
BMI equation BMI=\frac{\text{Wt (lb)}\times703}{\text{Ht (in)}^{2}}
Under-wt <18.5\,kg/m^{2}; normal 18.5{-}24.9; overweight 25{-}29.9; obesity \ge30.
Food guidance
: USDA MyPlate – 5 groups visual cue.
Enteral Nutrition (EN)
Definition
: nutritionally complete formula via tube → GI tract (stomach, duodenum, jejunum) when oral unsafe/insufficient.
Indications
: anorexia, orofacial fractures, H/N cancer, neuro/psych d/o, burns, critical illness, chemo, radiation.
Contra-indications
: GI obstruction, prolonged ileus, severe V/D, high-output enterocutaneous fistula.
Access routes
Short-term: NG, nasoduodenal, nasojejunal.
Long-term: gastrostomy (PEG), jejunostomy.
Administration safety
Confirm placement (x-ray on insertion, mark exit site, re-check q feed/8 h).
HOB ≥30^{\circ} (continue 30–60 min post bolus).
Monitor gastric residual per policy; consider promotility drugs.
Complications
Aspiration, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, dehydration (high calorie dense formulas), refeeding syndrome (hallmark = hypophosphatemia), tube site skin irritation, accidental removal.
Advantages vs PN
: physiologic, cheaper, lower infection risk.
Parenteral Nutrition (PN)
Definition
: IV infusion of dextrose, amino acids, lipids, electrolytes, vitamins, trace elements; “TPN”.
Indications
: severe V/D, bowel obstruction, short-bowel, severe malabsorption, anorexia nervosa, complicated surgery/trauma, GI fistulae.
Routes
Central PN (via PICC, subclavian, IJ): long-term, hypertonic.
Peripheral PN: short-term, lower osmolarity.
Complications
Refeeding syndrome (↓P, ↓K, ↓Mg, fluid retention).
Metabolic: hyper/hypoglycemia, fatty acid deficiency, ↑TG, liver dysfunction, renal issues.
Catheter related: infection/sepsis, air embolus, thrombosis, occlusion, hemorrhage.
Obesity
Epidemiology
43\% US adults obese; highest in South/Midwest, Black & Hispanic, low-income/education.
Pathophysiology
Energy intake > expenditure → hypertrophy & hyperplasia of adipocytes (most visceral/subQ). >400 genes influence appetite, satiety, metabolism.
Primary vs secondary (endocrine, CNS lesions, meds e.g., corticosteroids).
Environmental/Psychosocial contributors
: high-calorie food access, large portions, sedentariness, screen time, stress eating.
Health risks
(Fig 45-5): CVD, DM2, HTN, OSA, NAFLD/NASH, cancers, OA, psychosocial issues.
Assessment
BMI, waist circumference (>40'' men, >35'' women), waist-to-hip ratio, comorbidities labs (lipid, FBG, LFT, TSH).
Management goals
: modify diet, ↑exercise (\ge150 min/wk moderate), 5-10 % wt loss improves outcomes.
Behavior therapy tools
: self-monitoring logs, stimulus control, reward systems; strong motivation (appearance) predicts success.
Pharmacology
(BMI ≥30 or ≥27+comorbidity)
Orlistat – blocks fat absorption (steatorrhea).
Lorcaserin (5-HT agonist) – ↑satiety.
Phentermine/topiramate; bupropion/naltrexone.
Bariatric Surgery
Criteria: BMI ≥40 or ≥35+comorbidity.
Procedures: Adjustable gastric band, sleeve gastrectomy, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, BPD w/ duodenal switch.
Produces greatest sustained weight loss.
Upper GI Disorders
Nausea & Vomiting
Many etiologies (GI, CNS, CV, pregnancy, drugs). Complications: dehydration, electrolyte loss (K, Na, Cl), metabolic alkalosis.
Assess emesis characteristics (bright red ⇒ active bleed; coffee-ground ⇒ gastric bleed; fecal odor ⇒ distal obstruction; projectile ⇒ ↑ICP).
Care: identify cause, NPO/IVF, anti-emetics tailored, aspiration precautions, semi-Fowler.
Gastro-Esophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
Patho: incompetence of LES ± delayed gastric emptying → reflux of corrosive gastric juices → esophagitis, strictures, Barrett’s esophagus (precancerous).
Risk factors: ↑gastric volume post meals, obesity, tight clothes, smoking, hiatal hernia.
Symptoms: heartburn post-prandial & supine, dysphagia, hoarseness, chest pain.
Dx: barium swallow, EGD, pH monitoring.
Management
Lifestyle: upright ×3 h post meal, HOB elevated, small meals, avoid triggers (caffeine, alcohol, chocolate, peppermint, fatty/spicy), weight loss.
Drugs: H2 blockers, PPIs.
Surgery: Nissen fundoplication if refractory.
Hiatal Hernia
Stomach herniates through diaphragm.
Sliding – slides when supine; paraesophageal – beside esophagus, risk strangulation.
Similar care to GERD; surgery if complications.
Gastritis
Inflammation d/t mucosal barrier breakdown; acute (drugs, alcohol, stress) or chronic (H. pylori, autoimmune, toxins).
Manifestations: anorexia, N/V, epigastric pain, fullness, melena/anemia.
Dx: H&P, endoscopy, H. pylori tests, CBC, occult blood.
Management: remove cause, PPIs/H2B, sucralfate, antibiotics for H. pylori, 6 small bland meals; acute usually self-limits.
Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)
Ulceration in lower esophagus, stomach, duodenum from acid-pepsin.
Risk: H. pylori (most common), NSAIDs/ASA, smoking.
Types
Gastric: pain 1{-}2 h post-meal, worsens with food.
Duodenal: pain 2{-}5 h post-meal, relief with food/antacids.
Complications: hemorrhage (melena/hematemesis), obstruction, perforation (rigid board-like abdomen, rebound tender, shock).
Dx: EGD with biopsy, H. pylori tests, UGI/barium.
Therapy: \text{PPI}+2 antibiotics (clarithro + amox or metro); adjunct H2B, sucralfate, misoprostol, antacids; avoid NSAIDs, smoking, alcohol.
Complication care: NG decompression, IV antibiotics, surgery PRN.
Pharmacology Quick Reference (GI)
H2 Receptor Blockers
– cimetidine (many S/E, ↑warfarin), famotidine (Pepcid), ranitidine* withdrawn.
PPIs
– omeprazole, esomeprazole; give ≥1 h before breakfast; long-term risk C. diff, osteoporosis.
Sucralfate
– GI protectant; coats ulcer; give on empty stomach, 2 h apart from meds.
Misoprostol
– prostaglandin analog prevents NSAID ulcers; contraindicated pregnancy.
Antacids
– calcium carbonate (constipation/rebound), magnesium hydroxide (diarrhea), aluminum salts (constipation). Separate other meds ≥2 h.
Antidiarrheals
– loperamide (Imodium; no <2 y/o, high doses → arrhythmia), bismuth subsalicylate (black stool/tongue; salicylate toxicity tinnitus; avoid with ASA).
Laxatives
Bulk: psyllium; safe long-term; need fluids; space meds 2 h.
Stimulant: bisacodyl.
Osmotic: sodium phosphate (Fleet).
Lubricant: docusate mineral oil (↓fat-vit absorption, lipid pneumonia if aspirated).
Lower GI Disorders
Diarrhea
Patho: ↑motility (↓absorption) or ↑secretion (infection, osmotic). Report bloody diarrhea.
Risks: dehydration, metabolic acidosis (HCO₃⁻ loss).
Assessment: frequency, girth, sounds, hydration, meds, food.
Dx tests when severe/bloody: cultures, O&P, WBC, C-diff, sigmoidoscopy.
Management: treat cause, fluid/e-lyte replace, hold solids 24 h then small meals; avoid antidiarrheals in infection.
Clostridioides difficile
Spores persist 70 days; handwash with soap; contact isolation; clean surfaces (EPA list K).
Tx: PO vancomycin 125 mg QID or fidaxomicin; stop other abx; metronidazole alt; recurrent: fecal microbiota transplant.
Constipation
↓frequency, hard stool, straining; Valsalva risk ↑ICP, cardiac strain.
Causes: low fiber/fluids, inactivity, ignoring urge, chronic stimulant laxatives, obstruction.
Tx: high fiber, fluids 2 L, exercise, bulk laxatives, avoid chronic stimulants; education.
Fecal impaction
Putty mass; seepage; treat with oil retention enema → cleansing → manual removal (vagal risk).
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Functional; Rome IV ≥1 day/wk ×3 mo abdominal pain + stool change.
Subtypes: IBS-C, IBS-D, mixed, unsubtyped.
Triggers: stress, infection, food intolerances (gluten, lactose, FODMAPs).
Care: CBT, stress mgmt, low-FODMAP diet, exercise, antispasmodics (dicyclomine), antidepressants; IBS-D – rifaximin, alosetron; IBS-C – linaclotide, lubiprostone.
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
Ulcerative Colitis
Continuous superficial inflammation from rectum proximally; bloody diarrhea, LLQ pain, tenesmus.
Complications: toxic megacolon, perforation, colorectal CA.
Crohn’s Disease
Transmural skip lesions anywhere GI (terminal ileum common); non-bloody diarrhea, RLQ pain, weight loss, fistulas, malabsorption (B₁₂).
Diagnostics: colonoscopy, SBFT, labs.
Drug goals: induce/maintain remission.
5-ASA, corticosteroids, antimicrobials, immunomodulators (azathioprine), biologics (anti-TNF).
Surgery
UC: total proctocolectomy curative (ileostomy).
Crohn: segmental resection/strictureplasty; risk short-bowel.
Nutrition: high-calorie, high-protein, low-residue; enteral preferred during flares; avoid trigger foods, lactose, cold/high-fat.
Diverticular Disease
Diverticulosis = sacs; diverticulitis = inflamed/perforated.
Risks: low-fiber diet, aging, sedentary.
S/S: LLQ pain, fever, constipation/diarrhea.
Tx: NPO → clear → high-fiber; antibiotics; surgery if abscess/perforation.
Prevention: fiber-rich diet, ↓fat/red meat, fluids ≥2 L, avoid straining.
Hemorrhoids & Anal Disorders
Hemorrhoids: dilated rectal veins; internal painless bleeding, external painful; risk pregnancy, constipation.
Conservative: high fiber/water, stool softeners, sitz baths, anesthetic creams.
Procedures: sclerotherapy, rubber-band ligation, hemorrhoidectomy (post-op care checklist).
Anal fissure: linear tear; severe pain; sitz baths, topical analgesia, stool softeners; maybe lateral sphincterotomy.
Anorectal abscess: obstructed gland; pain, swelling, fever; surgical drainage, moist heat.
Anal fistula: tract from rectum to skin/vagina; surgery (fistulotomy, LIFT).
Diagnostic & Monitoring Highlights
EGD
: NPO 8 h, consent, sedation; post – gag reflex, temp q15–30 min (perforation).
Upper GI/Barium swallow & Lower GI/Barium enema
: NPO 8 h; post – laxatives, fluids, stools white ≤72 h.
MUST, BMI, waist metrics
as earlier.
Ethical / Practical Considerations
Non-judgmental communication about weight & nutrition; clarify need for sensitive questions.
Ensure informed consent for invasive procedures; respect cultural dietary practices.
Address food insecurity with community resources.
Infection control: C-diff isolation, hand hygiene—protect patients & staff.
Quick Reference Equations & Values
BMI=\dfrac{kg}{m^{2}}\quad\text{or}\quad BMI=\dfrac{lb\times703}{in^{2}}
MUST scoring ≥2 = high risk.
Waist risk: Men >40'', Women >35''.
Exercise goal: 150 min moderate / wk or 75 min vigorous.
EN head-of-bed \ge30^{\circ}; refeeding ↓P hallmark.
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Unit 2: Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties
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