Study Guide Exam 2

1. Define sensation, perception, transduction
a. Sensation: Sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
b. Perception: Brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful
c. Transduction: Conversion of one form of energy into another (sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret)
2. Understand the different between bottom-up and top-down processing
a. Bottom-up Processing: Begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
b. Top-down Processing: Constructs perception by drawing on our experience and expectations
3. Absolute threshold vs difference threshold
a. Absolute Threshold: Involves the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
i. Subliminal: Input below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness
ii. Priming: Activating, often unconsciously, associations in our mind
b. Difference Threshold: The minimum difference that a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time
4. Weber’s Law: For an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage
5. Subliminal sensation and persuasion
a. Subliminal Sensation: Too weak to detect 50% of the time (below the absolute threshold)
b. Subliminal Persuasion: May produce a fleeting and subtle but not powerful or enduring effect on behavior
6. Explain function of sensory adaptation
a. Sensory Adaptation influences how the world is perceived in a personally useful way (even influences how we perceive emotions) – constant exposure lessens effect
7. Define perceptual set and its effects on perception
a. Perceptual Set: Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
b. Preexisting schemas influence top-down processing of ambiguous sensation interpretation, including gender stereotypes
8. Motivation & emotion in perception
a. Walking destinations are farther away when fatigued and Slopes look steeper when we are wearing a heavy backpack
9. Understand physical characteristics of light, sound (wavelength, intensity, amplitude, hue)
a. Wavelength (distance from one wave peak to the next), Hue (Color experienced), Amplitude (Height), and Intensity (Amount of contained energy – brightness)
10. Recognize structures of the eye involved in vision (cornea, pupil, iris, lens, retina, fovea)
11. Eye-to-brain pathway
a. Light-energy particles trigger chemical reactions in receptor cells, rods and cones, which form an outer layer of cells of the retina at the back of the eye (Bipolar Cells, Ganglion Cells to the Rods and Cones)
12. Rods and cones
a. Rods: Sensitive to faint light
b. Cones: Sensitive to detail and color
13. Color theories (trichromatic, opponent-process)
a. Trichromatic: Eye must have three corresponding color receptor types, each sensitive to red, green, and blue wavelengths (Young-Helmholtz)
b. Opponent-Process: Opposing retinal processes enable color vision, such as: Red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) (Hering)
14. Grouping – (closure, continuity, proximity), figure-ground
a. Closure: Filling in gaps to create a complete, whole object
b. Continuity: Perceiving of smooth, continuous patterns, rather than discontinuous ones
c. Proximity: Grouping of nearby figures together
d. Figure-Ground: Organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from surroundings
15. Depth perception
a. Depth Perception: The ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional
16. Cues (binocular vs monocular)
a. Binocular Cues: Two eyes help with perception of depth
b. Monocular Cues: Depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone (height, size, interposition, perspective, light and shadow, and relative motion)
17. Perceptual constancy (color, brightness, shape, size)
a. Shape Constancy: Perceiving the form of familiar objects as constant even when our retinas receive changing images of them
b. Size Constancy: Perceiving objects as having constant size even when distance from them varies
18. Sensation and perception within auditory system (decoding sound waves)
a. Sound waves strike the eardrum, causing it to vibrate
b. Tiny bones in the middle ear pick up the vibrations and transmit them to the cochlea
c. Ripples in the fluid of the cochlea bend the hair cells lining the surface, which trigger impulses in nerve cells
d. Axons from these nerve cells transmit a signal to the auditory cortex
19. Pitch theories
a. Pitch Theory: Links the pitch heard with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (high pitches)
b. Frequency Theory (Temporal Theory): The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling its pitch to be sensed (low pitches)
20. Structures of the ear
a. Middle Ear: Amplifies the vibrations of the eardrum
b. Cochlea: Contains nerve receptors
c. Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear

21. Define learning
a. The process of acquiring through experience
22. Contributions of Ivan Pavlov, B.F Skinner, John Watson, Albert Bandura
a. Ivan Pavlov: Bell experiment with dogs for classical conditioning
b. B.F. Skinner: Modern behaviorism (expanded on the law of effect – which states that rewarded behavior tends to recur)
c. John Watson: Little Albert Experiment; fear association (generalization vs discrimination)
23. Define classical conditioning (including its components)
a. Classical conditioning: A set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events
i. Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that unconditionally – naturally or automatically triggers a response (food)
ii. Unconditioned response: The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation in response to food)
iii. Conditioned stimulus: Previously neutral stimulus (bell) that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
iv. Conditioned response: Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (salivation in response to a bell)
24. Recognize CC components within real-life examples
25. Recognize acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination examples
a. Acquisition: When one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (Initial Stage)
b. Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
c. Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
d. Generalization: Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli like the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
e. Discrimination: Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
26. Define operant conditioning
a. Operant Conditioning: Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli
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Define reinforcement (positive vs negative) + examplesa. Positive reinforcement: Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
i. Giving candy for good behavior
b. Negative reinforcement: Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli
i. Fasten seatbelt to stop beeping
28. Define punishment (positive vs negative) + examples
a. Punishment: Administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable to decrease the frequency of a behavior
b. Positive Punishment: Presents a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making behavior less likely to happen in the future
c. Negative Punishment: Removes a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing that behavior in the future
29. Schedules of reinforcement (fixed vs variable; ratio vs interval) + examples
a. Reinforcement Schedule: A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
i. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (faster acquisition, faster extinction)
ii. Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcing a response only part of the time (slower acquisition, greater resistance to extinction)
b. Ratio Schedules: Require a certain number of responses before reinforcement
i. Fixed-ratio Schedule: Reinforcing a response only after a specified number of responses
ii. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcing a response after an unpredictable number of responses
c. Interval Schedules: Reward is delivered for the first response that occurs following a certain interval of time
i. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcing a response only after a specified time has elapsed
ii. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcing a response at unpredictable time intervals
30. Define observational learning (Bandura’s study)
a. Observational Learning is the ability to learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others
i. Bandura’s study is the one with the adult punching a bag and the kid doing it the same way
31. Influence of media violence on aggressive behavior a. Introduced mirror neurons and spoke on behaviorism
32. Define memory
a. Memory: Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
33. Three basic processes involved in memory (encoding, storage, retrieval)
a. Encoding: How information gets into memory storage
b. Storage: How information is retained over time and how it is represented in memory
c. Retrieval: The process of taking information out of storage
34. Ebbinghaus’s contributions
a. Ebbinghaus found that the speed of relearning is one measure of memory retention (the more ties he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on day 2)
35. Memory models (information-processing, connectionism information-processing)
a. Information-processing model: Compares human memory to computer operations (encoding, storage, and retrieval)
b. Connectionism information-processing model: Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing; views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
36. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
a. Made up of sensory memory, working/short-term memory, and long-term memory
i. Sensory Memory: The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
ii. Short-term memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the 7 digits of a phone number while calling, before the information stored is forgotten
iii. Long-term memory: The permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
37. Encoding memories (automatic vs effortful)
a. Automatic: Unconscious encoding of incidental information (implicit); involves retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations
b. Effortful: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (explicit memory); Is memory based on facts and experiments that one can consciously know and ‘declare’
38. Sensory memory (iconic vs echoic memory)
a. Sensory memory: Feeds the active working memory
i. Iconic Memory: Picture-image memory of visual stimuli lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
ii. Echoic Memory: Sound memory of auditory stimuli; can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
39. Effortful processing strategies (chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies)
a. Chunking: Organization of items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
b. Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagers and organizational devices
c. Hierarchies: Organization of items into a few broad categories that are divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
40. Spacing effect, testing effect
a. Spacing Effect: Encoding is more effective when it is spread overtime
b. Testing Effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
41. Shallow vs deep processing
a. Shallow Processing: Encodes on a basic level (a word’s letters) or on a more intermediate level (a word’s sound)
b. Deep Processing: Encodes semantically, based on the word’s meaning
42. Conscious memory systems (semantic vs episodic)
a. Semantic memory: Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
b. Episodic Memory: Explicit memory of personally experienced events
43. Implicit memory system functions (cerebellum, basal ganglia)
a. Cerebellum: Forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning
b. Basal Ganglia: Deep brain structures involved in motor movement; facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills
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Amygdala and emotions, hippocampusa. Emotions trigger stress hormones which provoke the amygdala to initiate a memory trace
i. Flashbulb Memories: Clear memories of emotionally significant moments/events
45. Key memory structures in the brain
a. Frontal Lobe and Hippocampus: Explicit Memory Formation
b. Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia: Implicit Memory Formation
c. Amygdala: Emotion-related memory formation
46. Priming: Associations activated without our awareness (memoryless memory)
47. Context vs state dependency
a. Context dependency: People remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it
b. State dependency: Tend to remember information better if one is in the same psychological state or mood as when the information was encoded
48. Mood congruent memory: Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood (seeing someone in a bad mood may interpret it as them glaring)
49. Serial position effect: Tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
50. Amnesia (anterograde vs retrograde)
a. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories (50 first dates)
b. Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to retrieve information from one’s past
51. Why we forget? (Encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure)
a. Encoding failure: When information was never entered into long-term memory
b. Storage decay: Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay
c. Retrieval failure: Not remembering something one is certain of knowing
i. Proactive (forward-acting) interference: Prior learning disrupts recall of new information
ii. Retroactive (backward-acting) interference New learning disrupts recall of older information
52. Misinformation effect: Corruption of a memory by misleading information
53. Problem-solving strategies
a. Trial and Error
b. Heuristic: Simpler thinking strategies – ‘Mental Shortcut’
c. Algorithm: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution
d. Insight: A sudden realization of a problem’s solution
54. Confirmation bias, fixation
a. Confirmation Bias: Leads us to seek evidence for our ideas more eagerly than against them
b. Fixation: Inability to adopt to a fresh perspective
55. Representative vs availability heuristic (recognize examples)
a. Representative Heuristic: Estimating likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular stereotypes (Suit & tie means lawyer)
b. Availability Heuristic: Estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory (Plane crashes make people afraid of flying)
56. Overconfidence, belief perseverance, framing
a. Overconfidence: Tendency to overestimate accuracy of personal knowledge and judgements
b. Belief perseverance: Clinging to beliefs in the face of contrary evidence
c. Framing: Presentation of an issue (healthier eating)
57. Language structure
a. Language: Spoke, written, or signed words and the ways these are combined to communicate meaning
b. Phoneme: Smallest distinctive sound unit
c. Morpheme: Smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word
d. Grammar: System of rules that enables communication with and understanding of others
e. Semantics: Set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds
f. Syntax: Set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
58. Receptive, productive language, critical periods
a. Receptive Language: Recognition of differences in speech sounds
b. Productive Language: Babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage, and telegraphic speech
c. Critical Periods: Childhood represents a sensitive period for mastering certain language aspects (ability to master any language is lost around age 7)
59. The brain and language
a. The processing of language is parallel processing
b. Damage to left frontal lobe (Broca’s area): Can sing familiar songs and comprehend speech; struggle with speech production
c. Damage to left temporal lobe (Wernicke’s area): Can speak only meaningless words; unable to understand speech of others
60. Define intelligence (g): Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
61. Fluid vs crystallized intelligence (recognize examples)
a. Fluid Intelligence (Gf): Ability to reason speedily and abstractly (logical problem solving)
b. Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): Accumulated knowledge (Vocabulary and applied skills)
62. CHC theory
a. Cattel-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Intelligence Theory: Bridges the gap between Gf and Gc; Recognizes that intelligence compromises many abilities, but that these specific abilities exist under a broader umbrella of general intelligence
63. Gardner’s multiple intelligences: 8 (later 9) relatively independent intelligences
a. Linguistic Intelligence: Ability to use language both as an aid to thinking and in communication
b. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Ability to think logically and solve mathematical problems
c. Spatial Intelligence: Ability to use images to represent spatial relations
d. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Ability to learn and execute physical movements
e. Musical Intelligence: Sensitivity to and understanding of pitch, rhythm, and other aspects of music
f. Interpersonal Intelligence: Ability to communicate and engage in effective social relationships with others
g. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Ability to understand oneself
h. Naturalistic Intelligence: Ability to identify patterns in nature and to determine how individual objects or beings fit into them
64. Sternberg’s three intelligences
a. Analytical (academic problem-solving) Intelligence: Analytical skills, measured by most intelligence tests
b. Creative Intelligence: Makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas
c. Practical Intelligence: Practical, common sense, required for everyday tasks (street smarts)
65. Emotional intelligence: Critical part of social intelligence (made up of 4 abilities)
a. Perceiving Emotions
b. Understanding Emotions
c. Managing Emotions
d. Using Emotions
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How we assess intelligence, goals of testing mental abilitiesa. Intelligence Tests: Assess mental aptitudes and compare them with those of others, using numerical scores
b. Achievement Tests: Are intended to reflect what is learned
c. Aptitude Tests: Are intended to predict ability to learn some new skill
67. Binet-Simon intelligence scale, Stanford-Binet intelligence scale
a. Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale: Level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age
b. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is introduced by Stern; measures innate intelligence
68. Intelligence tests (Wechsler)
a. Tests separate strengths; yields overall intelligence score and separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
69. Standardization, norms: Establishing norms for comparing the scores of people who will take the test tin the future
70. Reliability (split-half, test-retest, correlation coefficients)
a. Split-half Reliability: Agreement of odd-question scores and even-question scores
b. Test-retest Reliability: Test with alternative forms of the test, or retest with the same test
c. Correlation Coefficients: The higher the correlation between the two scores, the high the test’s reliability
71. Validity (content, predictive)
a. Validity: The extent to which the test measures or predicts what it promises
b. Content Validity: Extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait
c. Predictive Validity: Function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait
72. Highs/lows of intelligence
a. Low Intelligence: Score below 70; apparent before age of 18 and sometimes with a known cause
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Aging and intelligence, culture in testinga. Simultaneously lose recall memory and processing speed, but gain vocabulary and knowledge (Gc increases up to old age and Gf may decline while social reasoning skills increase)
74. Environment, genetic influence on intelligence (twins, adopted children)
a. Shared environment exerts a modest influence on intelligence scores
75. Evolutionary perspective (Pinker)
a. Biology affects gender differences in life priorities, in risk-taking, and in math reasoning and spatial skills
76. Bias
a. A test predicts future behavior for all groups of test takers, not just for some
b. Tests’ predictive validity is roughly the same, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic level
c. Test is biased if it is unfair

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