Page 1: Introduction

Lecture Information

• Topic: Social Psychology: Helping and Prosocial Behaviour

• Instructor: Dr. Steven McNair (he/him)

• Contact: Steven.McNair@Glasgow.ac.uk

• Attendance: Log attendance on Moodle in Psych 1B > Lectures > Lecture Attendance > Developmental and Social at 9am or 1pm.

Page 2: Lecture Aims

By the End of This Lecture, You Should Be Able To:

• Discuss different motivations for helping.

• Define different types of prosocial behaviour, including altruism.

• Evaluate whether ‘true’ altruism exists.

• Discuss the bystander effect.

Page 3: The Question of Helping

Why Do People Help?

• Conceptual motto: "Be the Change".

Page 4: Definitions

Key Terms

• Prosocial behaviour: Actions valued positively by society.

• Helping behaviour: Voluntary actions believed to benefit others.

• Altruism: Acts that benefit others without expectation of personal gain.

Page 5: Understanding Helping

Levels of Analysis

• Different frameworks to analyze helping:

  • Short-term vs long-term helping.

  • Person-based vs community-based.

  • Emergency vs non-emergency helping.

  • Influence of bystander effects.

  • Acts of heroism.

Page 6: Factors Influencing Helping

Motivations for Helping

• Evolutionary: Biological predisposition to help.

• Social Influences: Norms, modeling, social exchange, empathy.

• Assumptions: People help more when they are socially or emotionally invested.

Page 7: Evolutionary Perspective on Helping

Biological Predisposition

• People have innate tendencies for prosocial behaviour demonstrated in young children. (Hepach, Viash, & Tomasello, 2012)

• Helping blood relatives increases the chances of gene propagation, but altruism extends to friends and strangers. (Warneken & Tomasello, 2009)

• Paradox: Costs of actions towards one’s own children not explained by this stance.

Page 8: Influence of Social Norms

Types of Social Norms Affecting Helping

• Reciprocity: Helping others expecting a return favor.

Page 9: Activity 1 - Reciprocity Norm

Instructions

• Observe examples of reciprocity during the video and document within provided Microsoft Form until 2 minutes and 40 seconds.

Page 10: Possible Examples of Reciprocity

Examples in Action

• Bringing snacks (e.g., bagels).

• Assisting with personal items (e.g., polishing a briefcase).

• Offering physical assistance (e.g., holding a door open).

• Sharing knowledge (e.g., health tips).

Page 11: Expanded Structure of Social Norms

Categories Inducing Helping

• Reciprocity: Return favors.

• Social Responsibility: Duty to help those dependent on us.

• Social Justice: Helping those who are deemed deserving of aid.

Page 12: Modelling as a Behavioural Influence

Observational Learning

• Learning to help by observing others.

• Helps shape behavior based on external influences, teaching individuals what to do in emergencies.

Page 13: Introduction to Social Exchange Theory

Understanding Social Exchange

• Considers costs and rewards associated with helping.

Page 14: Social Exchange: Cost-Benefit Analysis

Theory Overview (Homans, 1961)

• Individual actions motivated by maximization of rewards and minimization of costs.

Page 15: Rewards of Helping

Benefits of Altruism

• Increased likelihood of future reciprocal assistance.

• Relief from witnessing distress (Eisenberg et al., 1989).

• Improvement in self-image and self-worth (Hardy & Van Vugt, 2006).

Page 16: Costs of Helping

Detriments Involved

• Possible dangers, embarrassment, and time consumption impacting willingness to help.

• Higher costs can lead to less helping behavior.

Page 17: Study by Shotland & Straw (1976)

Context of the Study

• Participants viewed a fight and responded based on perceived danger of intervening.

Page 18: Study Findings

Results Overview

• Perceptions of threat affected willingness to intervene, distinguishing between stranger and domestic disputes.

Page 19: Exploring Empathy

Understanding Empathy

• The capacity to emotionally understand another's experience, essential for altruistic behavior.

Page 20: Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson, 1991)

Core Concept

• Feeling empathy motivates us to help others without self-interest.

Page 21: Batson et al. (1981) Study

Study Design

• Participants observe a confederate's pain, varied by similarity and escape options.

Page 22: Results of Batson Study

Observations

• Similarity induced more altruistic responses; less empathy led to egoistic behavior.

Page 23: Implications of Batson Study

Conclusion from Results

• Empathy for similar others leads to altruistic behavior; absence of empathy leads to self-serving actions.

Page 24: Integrating Theories

Comparison of Theories

• Empathy-Altruism Theory: Genuine altruism occurs only when empathy is felt.

• Social Exchange Theory: Decisions to help are based on self-interest considerations.

Page 25: Class Activity

Reflective Discussion

• Individual or group discussion on the existence of true altruism and justifications based on personal experiences and lecture content.

Page 26: Transition to Bystander Effect

Introduction to Part 4

• Exploration of how individuals respond in group situations when another needs help.

Page 27: Defining the Bystander Effect

Overview of the Concept

• Discuss how the presence of others impacts the likelihood of helping, referencing Darley & Latané (1968).

Page 28: Research on Bystander Responses

Visual Data Presentation

• Cumulative percentage data on helping behaviors relative to presumed bystander presence.

Page 29: Understanding Pluralistic Ignorance

Concept Defined

• A misunderstanding among bystanders about whether help is required due to the lack of clear signals in ambiguous situations.

Page 30: Decision-Making in Bystander Scenarios

Bystander Effect Decision Tree Overview

1. Notice the event.

2. Interpret the event as an emergency.

3. Assume responsibility.

4. Know how to help.

5. Decide to help.

Page 31: Recent Findings on the Bystander Effect

Research Surprising Findings (Philpot et al., 2020)

• In many observed conflicts, bystanders often intervene contrary to previous understandings of the effect.

Page 32: Summary of Key Points

Key Takeaways from the Lecture

• Various motivations underlie helping behavior, from social norms to personal benefit considerations.

• The existence of true altruism is debated within social exchange frameworks.

• The bystander effect highlights the complexities of group dynamics in emergencies.

Page 33: Key Terms for Review

Essential Vocabulary

• Prosocial behaviour, Helping behaviour, Altruism, Bystander effect, Social norms, Modelling, Social exchange, Empathy, Empathy-altruism theory, Reciprocity, Social responsibility, Social justice, Bystander intervention decision tree.

Page 34: Conclusion

Final Remarks

• Wishing you success in the remainder of the semester.

• Contact: Steven.McNair@Glasgow.ac.uk

• Office hours and attendance log reminders.