US History Study Guide - Chapter #17

🎯Chapter #17 Study Questions

Question 1

What were the key late-nineteenth-century technological innovations in communications, office productivity, and ocean transportation?

Answer:

For communications, the telegraph revolutionized long distance messaging through rapid speech translation via Morse code, the telephone, invented by Alexander, Graham Bell, allowed for rapid, long-distance communication through voice, the transatlantic cable allowed this type of telegraph, communication to be transmitted between Europe and North America, and photography allowed for greater visual communication and snapshots of events, which no longer had to be described, or painted in order to be shown/communicated.

For office productivity, the typewriter allowed the creation of more legible documents, calculator machines, such as the comptometer revolutionized our ability to industrialize computations, the electric lightbulb, created by Edison, made it safer than ever to have light indoors, and at night, and the phonograph, created by Thomas Edison, allowed audio to be recorded for business communication.

For ocean transportation, railroads inland drove steamships popularity along with them as larger markets were opened up further away from the shore. Large steam ships allowed for the enboldenment of global trade. Ocean liners created a larger and therefore more efficient version of the steam ships, refrigeration, allowed for perishable goods to be more easily transported globally, and of course investigations of the combustion engine allowed for automobiles, and flying aircraft, in the near future.

Question 2

What developments allowed the widespread use of electricity as a source of light and power to become commonplace by the turn of the century?

Answer:

As electricity became better integrated into the lives of Americans, the electrical industry innovated more than ever. These innovations, in turn, drove the popularity of electricity amongst Americans - turning the sector into the economic powerhouse that we know today. Some of these innovations included alternating current transmission, which allowed energy to be transferred over long distances without losing so much on the way, electric light, switch, popularized, electricity, better methods of power generation, and the ability to hold power facilities, centralized around local populations, the connection of electrical grids and standardization of appliances and methods in order to make it easier to power society, and economies of scale.

Question 3

What developments allowed the widespread use of electricity as a source of light and power to become commonplace by the turn of the century?

Answer:

The widespread adoption of light and power around the turn of the century was caused by a mix of the cultural shift to adopting these new energized lifestyles, and the innovations in the industry, accommodating to better user experience and higher integration ability for electricity to permeate society. These innovations included things like direct and alternating current systems, powered generators, the electric lightbulb, the connection of electrical grids, standardization of appliances, government support, and advertising through word of mouth and papers.

Question 4

Explain the new Bessemer and open-hearth technologies developed for the large-scale production of durable steel. What impact did the vast expansion of steel production have on transportation industries in the late nineteenth century?

Answer:

The Bessemer process allowed steelmakers to remove the impurities in pig iron by blowing air through it in a molten state, and turn it into steel. This method was far more cost-effective as compared to the traditional process of steelmaking, and aloud for a more rapid production cycle as well. The new speed and low cost aspects allowed for steel to be mass produced a larger scale than previously was feasible. The open hearth process, conceived of melting pig iron, along with scrap steel, in a large heating element which utilized a "regenerative heat exchange system". This open hearth process allowed greater control over the metallic composition of the steel produced, allowing for steel with intention for specific applications to be adopted. The consistency of steel production for specific tasks was improved with high quality metal, which could be insured to turn out similarly every time. This increased the demand for steel, as it became more useful and reliable. The growth of the steel industry, along with its ballooned production quantities and quality, contributed greatly to the transportation industry. With greater production, the more high-quality, durable, strong, and long-lasting steel was able to replace iron in railroad tracks. Due to the increase load, capacity of steel over iron, larger, heavier and faster locomotives were able to be utilized - increasing the abilities of the railroad industry as they could now transport heavier loads over greater distances. Outside of the railroad industry, steel's durability was attractive to ship builders for ships which would be less prone to corrosion and more durable in the face of aquatic injuries. Infrastructure projects, such as bridge building took advantage of enhanced steel production, to build more durable bridges, such as the Brooklyn Bridge, as well as skyscrapers, and the automobile industry used to steal for the frames and outer layers of their vehicles for enhanced durability in the interest of safety. Industrial producers utilized steel in their machinery, for longer lasting and noncorrosive machines, and across the nation it was utilized in numerous other fashions - it's uses only expanding at the dawn of the 20th century.

Question 5

Describe the beginnings of the oil industry in the United States. What was the main use of petroleum at first?

Answer:

The oil industry in the US first began at Drakes well in 1859 where petroleum was thrilled out of the ground from 69 feet in Pennsylvania. Early on, petroleum was used to like kerosene in a crude oil form for lighting. It was less expensive than whale oil for the same purpose, and was an early driver of the industry. Overtime we began to refine the oil so it could be turned into more high-quality products, such as lubricants for machines, and waxes. In 1870 the standard oil company was founded by John D Rockefeller, and it ate up the market. Being such a large participant in the market, allowed it to make greater strides and improve its position within the American economy. Once the kerosene and refined oils industry expanded into gasoline, it was not an immediate success. This was due to the fact that it had limited usage as the automobile and machine industry was still infantile. However, as the automobile industry gained steam, the gasoline industry boomed. The discovery of oil at Spindletop, Texas in 1901 was one of many oil locations to be discovered throughout the early 20th century, and it powered cheap American oil. With all this influx of cash flow, the oil industry was able to invest in refining it's on workflow, which made it ever more efficient and able to grow internationally and at home. Today, the petroleum-based product industry includes fuel, asphalt, and the Petro-chemical (petro stands for petrol) industry. It is as pervasive in our lives as agriculture.

Question 6

Although the age of the automobile and the era of significant American aircraft production would not fully arrive until the 1910s and 1920s, what developments of the 1890s and the first decade of the twentieth century laid the basis for the later boom?

Answer:

One of the greatest factors in preparing for the expansion of the automobile and aircraft industry, was experimentation with internal combustion engines in the late 19th century. The Prototypes of these types of engines are able to power the prototypes of full automobiles, and flights such as the Wright brothers made. Outside of the powering aspects, assembly lines, such as were pioneered by Henry Ford around 1913 paved the way for how a large scale automobile production industry could feasibly operate. On the aviation side of things, after the Wright brothers successfully made their flights it sparked a new interest in discovering aviation technology, such as aerodynamics and materials that would allow full body aircraft to enter the market. Through a mix of government support, natural industry growth, popular demand, and the success of several individual companies, aviation and automobiles grew into legitimate industries at the start of the 20th century.

(the Aviation and small motor sector, it should be noted, saw incredible growth during World War I and II)

Question 7

How did expanding research and development activities, "scientific management," and mass production reshape American industrial production? What role did General Electric and the Ford Motor Company play in these early twentieth-century developments?

Answer:

By investing in research and development, scientific management, and mass production general electric company in the Ford motor company were able to bring new practices and products onto the field that were unique at the time. Investments in R&D allowed each company to excel in their field, advancing far faster than any competition, and leading their sector. Along with scientific management, which focused on improving the efficiency of the company and optimizations in general, the general electric company was able to expand into fields beyond where it had begun (electric, aviation, healthcare) and the Ford motor company revolutionized manufacturing with its assembly lines and automobile manufacturing practices/technologies.

Question 8

How did the rapidly expanding railroads of this era contribute to the expansion of the American economy?

Answer:

The rapid expansion of the American railroad industry had an undeniably profound effect on the American economy, and the rate of expansion at the time. By connecting distant sections of land, efficiently, it allowed for a national autonomy to bloom more than I've ever had in the past - both connecting people and businesses. They helped the western frontier, appear closer to the rest of developed society and helped it reach a higher level of development through that connection. It was easier than ever to take advantage of the resources and possibility of the west while maintaining a connection to eastern legacy operations, businesses, and society. Financially speaking, it made it far more viable to operate a business in the west or expand one's already in operation business westward. Also, the success of railroads encouraged capital donations to railroad progress - which also in bold and capital investments in other Western economic activity. 

Question 9

Describe how railroads took the lead in new patterns of business organization and management in the late nineteenth century. What legal and financial advantages does the corporation form of enterprise offer to business and investors?

Answer:

Previously to large railroad corporations, most businesses were run by founders - and their capital investments relied on partnerships between a small group of people. Railroads faced a unique issue, as such a large financial investment was necessary to operate. To remedy this, they use the business model referred to as an LLC, or a limited liability company. In this business model, investors would buy stocks or bonds in the company, and would not be responsible financially for the success of the company or it's debts. This did two things: it encouraged more shareholders to take an interest in supporting the company, as they would hold less responsibility for success, and their only risk would be the money that they initially invested. Secondly, it allowed more investors to become involved in the project as stocks were available to anyone who cared to pay for them. This revolutionized the Industry as well, as stock, so we're probably traded could be easily transferred between investors and we're in investment property beyond the initial investor. This meant initial investors wouldn't have to care about the company forever, as once the stock at appreciate it, they could sell it for a profit and get out. Also, with the large size of railroad entities, a rise in professional business managers began to occur which had never been seen before at scale. Legally, and financially, an LLC corporation is more liquid for investors as they can sell their stocks and bonds, and for the company itself, it allows the collection of capital to be more streamlined and effective. Additionally, because there were no partners within companies to worry about, it made it more easy to merge companies and streamline operations between those in order to operate at economies of scale.

Question 10

Compare and contrast the vertical and horizontal integration strategies of business combination. Which approaches did Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller utilize? What "curse" of the business world was consolidation designed to attack?

Answer:

• Vertical integration means that a company owns their entire production cycle from raw materials to product construction and distribution. A horizontal integration means that a company at one level in the production cycle branches out and purchases companies at the same level in order to hold somewhat of a monopoly over their sector of a product line. This would be enticing, as it allows the business to operate at economies of scale and gain a hold over the industry. Vertical integration has its ups and downs as well, because while it does reduce the cost of production of the product, and gives you control over your supply chain, it also adds a lot of complexity to business management - and you are relying on your own ability to operate multiple different types of operation.
• Andrew Carnegie took advantage of vertical integration to grow his business in the steel industry. This allowed him to control the cost of the product very well, along with the quality of the product. Compared to other manufacturers, he could sell the product at the same price and make a greater profit as he wasn't paying any premiums on the raw materials being used or he could sell the product at a lower price for the same amount of profit as other groups while becoming more enticing to the consumer.
• John D Rockefeller, opposing the style of Andrew Carnegie, employed the horizontal integration style for his oil business. His goal was to own the entire refining level of oil production for consumers and corporations, by consolidating control over nearly all existing refineries.
• The curse of the business world is that when there are enough, companies competition will increase, too much of the product will be produced, and the existing companies will have to lower the prices for competition, and the product will be worthless as there is too much of it in circulation. Through consolidation, the number of competing companies can be lowered and through economies of scale and each business will be able to operate at lower costs of production.

Question 11

Although the term "trust" came to be a general term for any big business, there were legal differences between a formal "trust" and a "holding company." Explain the differences. What were the advantages of the latter?

Answer:

• A trust is a legal arrangement in which a board of trustee members all hold partial ownership in a company or group of companies or operation. These board members have the ability to manage the operations they oversee collectively. The intention of these types of trusts is to place control of multiple companies/operations with a single management structure, rather than having a manager of managers of all the separate companies. Sean D Rockefeller use this to his advantage within the oil industry to consolidate control over multiple horizontally, acquired oil companies, known as The Standard Oil Trust.
• A holding company describes a corporation which owns stock in multiple other companies/operations, but doesn't attempt or need to interact with the leadership structure of those companies/operations. The main intent of a holding company is to gain majority stock ownership over other companies, invest in them, and influence multiple of these other corporations at once, without having to interact with the formal business side of them. JP Morgan's United States Steel Corporation was a holding company which held the majority stock of multiple steel companies in order to affect their operations without dealing with company affairs on the ground.
• The benefits of using a holding company was that stock ownership was limited liability, meaning that your investment risk was only the cash you invested, and you weren't responsible for any financial failure of the company. It allows control over multiple entities without having to deal with the actual business operations, or having to legitimately on and deal with these businesses. Additionally, investments can be made in diverse companies within a portfolio, regardless of your ability to comprehend the management of these companies - whereas members of a trust would have to have a close understanding of the way in which their companies worked in order to be effective leaders. Additionally, successes and losses within multiple investments can lead to tax benefits overall. 

Question 12

What kept alive the ideology of individualism and the faith in the "self-made man" among the American masses?

Answer:

Initially, one could think that the idea of a self-made man might fade as American society solidified into a more permanent structure. Whereas before American society was less rigid, some standards were now in place which one would think might discourage the idea of social and economic freedom. However, American society was constructed in such a way that upward social and economic mobility continue to be possible systematically. Adding to this the pervasive cultural phenomenon of the American frontier and the support given to "common men" by the country's highest leaders, faith in the idea of a self-made man was able to persist within American ideologies up to today.

Question 13

Compare and contrast Social Darwinism and the Gospel of Wealth. Who was the principal proponent of the latter?

Answer:

Social Darwinism, the idea that competition within human society would naturally bring success to the most naturally superior members of that society, and the Gospel of Wealth, a philosophic concept that claimed those with money, were obligated to use their wealth for the benefit of society, seem to fall within the same area of societal perspectives - but with several important differences. Social Darwinism focuses on the natural succession of power through competition, and the gospel of wealth views wealth as a responsibility to the people. Social Darwinism has no moral obligation for anyone to address societal issues, while the gospel of wealth focuses largely on the idea that the wealthy have an obligation to contribute to the betterment of society. Additionally, social Darwinism does not intend to bring government into the equation, while the gospel of wealth encourages both individual philanthropy and government encouragement.

Question 14

Describe the radical and idealistic alternative visions of late-nineteenth-century writers and activists. How realistic were such views?

Answer:

Two of the main radical or idealistic alternative visions, were the populist and social gospel movements. The populist movement attempted to address the social difficulties of farmers and build, better agrarian communities. In their vision of society, these communities would be prioritized over the wishes of big business and finance influences. They also champion a progressive income tax. The social gospel movement believed society had a moral obligation to interject against social else. The championed improved wages, poverty alleviation, and improved working conditions under the eye of the Lord. The populist movement was not fully realized, but did have an effect on some political agendas and influenced later agrarian movements. The social gospel movement did gain some traction, and had an influence on the structure of society during its era. Additionally, it allowed later movements to thrive in its place. It didn't achieve its full vision. The views of these alternative societal visions were rarely completely realistic, and they did not work at a societal scale.

Question 15

What negative consequences of monopoly did many Americans come to fear?

Answer:

Around the turn of the century, Americans began to have great concerns about the effect of monopolies in the economy. For companies themselves, monopolies were the perfect situation as they were able to control the entire market, it's prices, and had no competition. However, for the consumer, this lack of competition meant that the existing monopolies were able to price gouge, care less about their quality, cease to innovate, provide a few options without the variety of multiple companies, exploit the labor members of their companies as they were the only option, use their control over an industry and their financial success to influence politics, discourage the entry of competitors into the market, and tamp down small business models. Many citizens were concerned about the effect of monopolies, which mirrored a dictator ship on democracy in America. 

Question 16

America's new urban working-class was drawn primarily from what two groups?

Answer:

The two main groups that filled America's growing urban working class were Rural Migrants and Immigrants. Many immigrants from outside the US site opportunity here in the urban labor environment. Factory type of jobs were common in many cities, and it was easy for newcomers to gain employment there. They were low-skilled but taxing jobs. In addition to these immigrants, many Americans who lived in more rural communities began to migrate towards more urban areas in search of work. This was largely due to the industrialization of agriculture, which led to a decrease in the workforce required to operate rural agriculture, which was previously America's largest industry for employment.

Question 17

Contrast the earlier immigrants to the United States with those who came to dominate by the turn of the century. What attracted immigrants, especially the later groups, to the United States? How did native-born Americans and earlier immigrants react?

Answer:

Before the turn of the century, most immigrants came from north, and western Europe. Specifically, Ireland, Germany, and England. They sought jobs, land, and general expansion from the tight packed European lifestyle. There was an anti-Irish sentiment within the US at this time, but their contributions to the growth of the nation admired. At the dawn of the 1900s, immigrants began to more commonly arrive from southeastern Europe, specifically from countries, such as Russia, Italy, Greece, and Poland, etc. While still coming in search of employment, many of these immigrants now sought to work in urban areas rather than finding a new life on the frontier. The large numbers of these new immigrants caused a surge in nativist sentiment. The know nothings, a political party based in nativist thought, along with the American protective association, call out against the so-called injustices brought by new immigrants. Native born Americans and immigrants who had come before the turn of the century were concerned by the competition in the labor market brought by the new immigrants. Another issue was the cultural discrepancies between later immigrants, earlier immigrants, and native born Americans. 

Question 18

What were the uncertainties and hazards of industrial labor?

Answer:

Minimal job security, insufficient pay, inadequate safety regulations, child labor exploitation, inadequate ventilation, unsafe machinery, exposure to harmful substances, long-term health issues, aggression against unions, unsanitary and insufficient housing, exploitation of immigrants, and for those who had previously been successful in a market filled with Craftsmen the power of industrial labor began to destroy artisanal professions. 

Question 19

Why did industry increasingly employ women and children? How were they treated?

Answer:

Women and children were more easily coerced into low pay, and poor contracts. Often the women and children who they employed had no connection to others outside of the factory, and could be extracted from general society without notice. Children were useful due to their size, allowing them to work in spaces smaller than would be possible for adults. Women's dexterity in textile arts, and the assembly of fine electronics, were highly valuable in the eyes of factory management. Both groups were seen as more docile, making them attractive as a compliant workforce. Another factor contributing to the common employment of women and children was the low pay prevalent across the industry - causing families to be more likely to send away children and women to provide for the family. At the time, legal restrictions on the employment of these groups were nearly nonexistent, allowing the practice to continue, particularly with children. Both groups were treated very poorly, exploited, and exposed to terrible conditions.

Question 20

Compare and contrast the organization, membership, leadership, and programs of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor. Why did the AFL succeed, while the Knights disappeared?

Answer:

The knights of labor included all laborers within multiple skill levels and enterprises, while the American Federation of labor was more selective, with a focus on working with skilled laborers in a union type structure. The nights at a very centralized structure with branches that all coalesced to a head, while the AFL had a more decentralized hierarchy in which they formed multiple unions which were specified to their industries. The nights were led by Terence Powderly (who was pro-inclusion), and the AFL was led by Samuel Gompers (who wanted a more exclusive and effective group of skilled laborers). The nights attempted to achieve social and political reforms throughout society, while the AFL pinpointed very specific issues within each of the industries they represented such as pay, hours, and labor conditions. The AFL succeeded because it was able to use a focused, unionized strategy to give a greater voice to specific needs within skilled work industries. Focused on collective bargaining, and working with in the system, making their request more palatable to industry leaders. Additionally, the separated structure and exclusivity allowed for better organization within the group as a whole. The knights failed, largely due to their unachievable, societal goals, secretive nature that caused suspicion/mistrust amongst those who participated in the organization as well as by the public, violent strikes (Haymarket Riot), and the internal differences between skilled and unskilled laborers within the organization. The nights were too brazen, and the AFL was able to persist and adapt.

Question 21

Compare and contrast the Haymarket affair, Homestead strike, and Pullman strike. On balance, what was their effect on the organized labor movement?

Answer:

• The Haymarket affair, in 1886, what is a peaceful strike in Chicago for workers rights that became violent after a bomb was thrown at the observing police force. The bombing caused the deaths of multiple police members and civilians, and incited gunshots within the crowd. The tragedies and appearance of anarchy, within the labor organizations lead to a stain on the image of unionization.
• The homestead strike, in 1892, occurred in Homestead, Pennsylvania. The strike consisted of a dispute between the amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers against the Carnegie Steel Company over wage cuts and intolerable working conditions. Partway through the strike, an abatement force was hired to break up the protest, which ended up causing the deaths of multiple people and injuries to many more. Fear of endangering one's life, by participation in a unionized display, and the strike's failure to succeed, lead to a decline in membership and influence of the Amalgamated Association, along with a decline in labor movements nationally.
• The pullman, strike, in 1894, was a Chicago, strike by the American Railway Union (ARU) against the Pullman Company over declining wages and poor working conditions (seeing a pattern here?). Pullman operated Railway cars across the country, and ARU boycotted the use of these cars. Due to the economic and societal importance of the railways to the US at the time, President Grover Cleveland made an executive military order to send federal troops out to end the boycotts/those involved with the strike. The strike was abated, and ARU was legally persecuted, leading to a decline in their organization. 

       One of the main similarities across all of these labor/industrial strikes is concerns over wages and working conditions, followed by intervention against this strikes ordered by company leadership - and this intervention leads to a violent altercation that leads to the persecution of the labor movement rather than the actions of the company. However, each of these strikes occurred within different industries, and the railroad strike operated with a boycott rather than a demonstration. Additionally, national governmental intervention was only involved in the railroad strike. Overall, this tells us that the economic impact of observing these strikes in allowing him to continue always encourages. Those two would be influenced by the economic impact to intervene. In the third case, there would be a very national impact in therefore the government was involved.

       Across the board, the failure of the strikes negatively impacted public perspectives on the labor movement, incited legal action against labor leaders/organizations, decreased the growing influence of these organizations, and caused disputes amongst these organizations internal leadership - leading to a decrease in their influence. However, strikes are strikes, and they did prompt changes which addressed the labor issues in question. For example, the railroad pullman strike was a large factor in the establishment of Labor Day as a national holiday. Within the labor movement, their failures within these strikes caused them to take greater interest in legal and political involvement rather than physical demonstrations to avoid the issues brought up previously. 

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