Earth Science Vocabulary

🌍 Unit 1: Introduction to Earth Science

Earth science is the study of Earth’s structure, processes, history, and its place in the universe.

• It seeks to understand the complexities of our planet, from the deepest interiors to the highest atmosphere, and how these components interact over vast timescales.
• It integrates various scientific disciplines to provide a comprehensive view of Earth as a dynamic system. It includes four main branches:
• Geology – the study of the solid Earth, rocks, and geologic processes.
  • Focuses on the composition, structure, and history of the Earth's crust and interior.
  • Investigates processes such as volcanism, earthquakes, mountain building, and erosion that shape the Earth's surface.
  • Examines the formation and distribution of rocks and minerals to understand Earth's past environments and events.
• Meteorology – the study of the atmosphere and weather.
  • Deals with the physics, chemistry, and dynamics of the atmosphere.
  • Studies weather patterns, climate variability, and atmospheric phenomena such as storms, fronts, and precipitation.
  • Employs observations, models, and theories to forecast weather and understand climate change.
• Oceanography – the study of oceans, currents, and marine systems.
  • Explores the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the ocean.
  • Investigates ocean currents, tides, waves, and the interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere.
  • Studies marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and the impact of human activities on the marine environment.
• Astronomy – the study of the universe and celestial bodies.
  • Examines the properties, origins, and evolution of stars, planets, galaxies, and other celestial objects.
  • Investigates the structure and dynamics of the universe, including topics such as cosmology, black holes, and dark matter.
  • Uses telescopes, satellites, and other instruments to observe and analyze the universe across the electromagnetic spectrum.

The Scientific Method:

1. Ask a question (Observation)
   • Begin by noticing a phenomenon or identifying a problem that requires explanation.
   • Formulate a specific question about the observation that can be investigated through experimentation or analysis.
2. Form a hypothesis (testable explanation)
   • Develop a tentative explanation or prediction that addresses the question.
   • Ensure the hypothesis is testable through experimentation or observation.
3. Conduct experiments
   • Design and perform controlled experiments to test the hypothesis.
   • Collect data systematically, using appropriate techniques and instruments.
4. Analyze data
   • Organize and analyze the data collected during the experiments.
   • Look for patterns, trends, and relationships that support or refute the hypothesis.
5. Form a conclusion
   • Evaluate the results of the experiments and determine whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected.
   • Draw conclusions based on the evidence and consider the limitations of the study.
6. If confirmed repeatedly → becomes a theory (e.g., Plate Tectonics)
   • A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation.
   • Plate Tectonics, for example, explains the movement of the Earth's lithosphere based on extensive evidence from geology, geophysics, and paleomagnetism.

Earth’s 4 Major Systems:

1. Geosphere – rock and solid Earth
   • Includes the Earth's crust, mantle, and core, as well as rocks, minerals, and soils.
   • Provides the physical foundation for all other systems and influences processes such as volcanism, earthquakes, and mountain building.
2. Hydrosphere – all water (liquid and frozen)
   • Encompasses oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, groundwater, and water vapor in the atmosphere.
   • Plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's climate, transporting heat, and supporting life.
3. Atmosphere – gaseous envelope; 78% N₂, 21% O₂
   • Consists of layers of gases surrounding the Earth, including nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace gases.
   • Protects the Earth from harmful solar radiation, regulates temperature, and drives weather patterns.
4. Biosphere – all living organisms
   • Includes all living organisms on Earth, from microbes to plants and animals.
   • Interacts with the other three systems through processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition. These systems constantly interact in cycles, such as volcanic eruptions affecting the atmosphere and biosphere.
   • Volcanic eruptions release gases and particles into the atmosphere, which can affect climate and air quality.
   • The biosphere can be impacted by volcanic eruptions through habitat destruction and changes in nutrient availability.

🪨 Unit 2: Minerals and Rocks

Minerals:

• Naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, with definite chemical composition and crystalline structure.
  • Naturally occurring: Formed by natural geological processes without human intervention.
  • Inorganic: Not composed of organic compounds (carbon-based molecules).
  • Solid: Exists in a solid state at room temperature.
  • Definite chemical composition: Has a specific chemical formula or range of chemical formulas.
  • Crystalline structure: Atoms are arranged in a repeating, ordered pattern.
• Properties used for identification:
  • Hardness (Mohs Scale)
  • Resistance to scratching, measured on a scale of 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond).
  • Cleavage vs. fracture
  • Cleavage: Tendency to break along smooth, flat surfaces.
  • Fracture: Irregular breakage pattern.
  • Luster (metallic/nonmetallic)
  • Appearance of a mineral's surface in reflected light.
  • Metallic: Shiny, like a metal.
  • Nonmetallic: Vitreous (glassy), dull, pearly, silky, etc.
  • Streak, color, density
  • Streak: Color of a mineral in powdered form (rubbed on a streak plate).
  • Color: Visual appearance of the mineral.
  • Density: Mass per unit volume.

Rock Types:

1. Igneous: from cooled magma/lava
   • Formed from the solidification of molten rock material (magma or lava).
   • Intrusive (granite): slow cooling, big crystals
     • Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth's surface, allowing large crystals to grow.
     • Granite is a common example of an intrusive igneous rock with visible crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
   • Extrusive (basalt): fast cooling, small/no crystals
     • Extrusive igneous rocks form when lava cools rapidly on the Earth's surface, resulting in small or no crystals.
     • Basalt is a common example of an extrusive igneous rock with a fine-grained or glassy texture.
2. Sedimentary: from weathered particles compacted/cemented
   • Formed from the accumulation and lithification of sediments, which are derived from the weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks.
   • Clastic (sandstone), chemical (rock salt), organic (limestone)
     • Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of fragments of other rocks and minerals (e.g., sandstone, shale).
     • Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by the precipitation of minerals from solution (e.g., rock salt, gypsum).
     • Organic sedimentary rocks are composed of the remains of plants and animals (e.g., limestone, coal).
3. Metamorphic: formed under heat/pressure
   • Formed when pre-existing rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, causing changes in their mineral composition and texture.
   • Foliated (gneiss), non-foliated (marble)
     • Foliated metamorphic rocks have a layered or banded appearance due to the alignment of minerals (e.g., gneiss, schist).
     • Non-foliated metamorphic rocks lack a layered texture and are typically composed of equidimensional minerals (e.g., marble, quartzite).

Rock Cycle: Rocks change from one type to another through melting, cooling, weathering, compaction, heat, and pressure.

• The rock cycle is a continuous process in which rocks are created, transformed, and destroyed through various geological processes.
  • Melting: Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
  • Weathering and erosion: Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and lithification of sediments.
  • Metamorphism: Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures.

🌍 Unit 3: Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics Theory:

• Earth’s lithosphere is broken into ~12 major plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere.
  • The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of the Earth, composed of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
  • The asthenosphere is a partially molten layer of the mantle that allows the lithospheric plates to move.
• Movement driven by convection currents in the mantle.
  • Convection currents are generated by heat from the Earth's interior, causing hot material to rise and cooler material to sink.
  • These currents exert forces on the overlying lithospheric plates, causing them to move.

Types of Plate Boundaries:

1. Divergent – plates move apart (mid-ocean ridge)
   • At divergent plate boundaries, plates move away from each other, allowing magma to rise from the mantle and create new crust.
   • Mid-ocean ridges are examples of divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic crust is formed through seafloor spreading.
2. Convergent – plates collide
   • At convergent plate boundaries, plates collide, resulting in subduction or collision zones.
   • Oceanic-continental: subduction zone (volcanoes)
     • When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the denser oceanic plate is forced beneath the continental plate in a process called subduction.
     • Subduction zones are characterized by deep-sea trenches, volcanic arcs, and earthquakes.
   • Continental-continental: mountains (Himalayas)
     • When two continental plates collide, neither plate is subducted, and the collision results in the formation of large mountain ranges.
     • The Himalayas, for example, were formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
3. Transform – plates slide past (San Andreas Fault)
   • At transform plate boundaries, plates slide horizontally past each other, without creating or destroying lithosphere.
   • Transform faults are characterized by shallow earthquakes and strike-slip faulting.
   • The San Andreas Fault in California is a well-known example of a transform plate boundary.

Evidence:

• Continental drift (Wegener)
  • Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift, suggesting that the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea and have since drifted apart.
  • Evidence for continental drift includes the fit of the continents, similar fossil distributions, matching rock formations, and paleoclimatic data.
• Seafloor spreading (age of ocean floor, magnetic stripes)
  • Seafloor spreading is the process by which new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges and then moves away from the ridge over time.
  • Evidence for seafloor spreading includes the age of the ocean floor (youngest at the ridges, oldest farthest away), magnetic stripes (alternating bands of normal and reversed polarity), and heat flow measurements.
• Earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains at boundaries
  • The distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains provides further evidence for plate tectonics, as these features are often concentrated along plate boundaries.

🌊 Unit 4: Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior

Earthquake Basics:

• Sudden movement along a fault caused by stress buildup
  • Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere, typically due to the movement of tectonic plates along faults.
  • Stress builds up along faults over time as the plates move, and when the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, a sudden rupture occurs, generating seismic waves.
• Measured using seismographs
  • Seismographs are instruments that detect and record seismic waves generated by earthquakes.
  • They consist of a sensor that detects ground motion and a recording device that produces a seismogram, which is a visual representation of the seismic waves.
• Scales: Richter, Moment Magnitude, Mercalli
  • Richter scale: A logarithmic scale that measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on the amplitude of seismic waves recorded on seismographs.
  • Moment Magnitude scale: A more accurate scale that measures the total energy released by an earthquake, taking into account the size of the fault rupture and the amount of slip.
  • Mercalli scale: A subjective scale that measures the intensity of an earthquake based on the observed effects on people, buildings, and the environment.

Seismic Waves:

• P-waves (primary): fastest, travel through solids & liquids
  • P-waves are compressional waves that travel through the Earth's interior, causing particles to move back and forth in the same direction as the wave is traveling.
  • They are the fastest type of seismic wave and can travel through both solids and liquids.
• S-waves (secondary): slower, only through solids
  • S-waves are shear waves that travel through the Earth's interior, causing particles to move perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling.
  • They are slower than P-waves and can only travel through solids.
• Surface waves: slowest, most damaging
  • Surface waves travel along the Earth's surface and are generated by the interaction of P-waves and S-waves with the surface.
  • They are the slowest type of seismic wave but are often the most damaging, as they have large amplitudes and cause significant ground motion.

Earth’s Interior:

1. Crust – solid outer layer (continental & oceanic)
   • The crust is the Earth's outermost layer and is composed of solid rock.
   • It is divided into two types: continental crust (thicker, less dense) and oceanic crust (thinner, more dense).
2. Mantle – solid rock, convection occurs
   • The mantle is the layer beneath the crust and is composed of solid rock.
   • Convection currents in the mantle drive the movement of tectonic plates.
3. Outer core – liquid iron/nickel (generates magnetic field)
   • The outer core is a liquid layer composed mainly of iron and nickel.
   • The movement of liquid iron in the outer core generates Earth's magnetic field through the geodynamo process.
4. Inner core – solid iron/nickel
   • The inner core is a solid sphere composed mainly of iron and nickel.
   • It is solid due to the immense pressure at the Earth's center. Shadow zones prove liquid outer core.
   • The existence of shadow zones, where certain seismic waves are not detected, provides evidence for the liquid outer core.
   • S-waves cannot travel through liquids, so they are blocked by the outer core, creating an S-wave shadow zone.
   • P-waves are refracted (bent) as they pass through the outer core, creating a P-wave shadow zone.

🕰 Unit 5: Geologic Time

Relative Dating:

• Law of Superposition – oldest rocks on bottom
  • In a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks are at the bottom and the youngest rocks are at the top.
• Cross-cutting relationships – faults and intrusions are younger than what they cut
  • Any geologic feature that cuts across another feature is younger than the feature it cuts across.
  • For example, a fault that cuts through a series of rock layers is younger than the rock layers.
• Unconformities – gaps in the rock record due to erosion
  • Unconformities represent gaps in the rock record due to periods of erosion or non-deposition.

Absolute Dating:

• Radioactive decay: unstable isotopes break down into stable ones
  • Radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate, transforming into stable isotopes over time.
• Half-life: time for half of the isotope to decay (e.g., C-14 = 5,730 years)
  • The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half of the original amount of the isotope to decay.
  • Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years and is used to date organic materials up to about 50,000 years old.

Index Fossils:

• Widespread, short-lived → used to correlate layers
  • Index fossils are fossils of organisms that lived for a relatively short period of time and were geographically widespread.
  • They are used to correlate rock layers of the same age in different locations.

Geologic Time Scale:

• Precambrian: longest era; stromatolites, little oxygen
  • The Precambrian is the earliest and longest era in Earth's history, spanning from the formation of the Earth to the beginning of the Paleozoic Era.
  • Stromatolites are layered sedimentary structures formed by microbial mats of cyanobacteria, which were among the earliest life forms on Earth.
  • The Precambrian atmosphere had very little oxygen compared to today.
• Paleozoic: marine life, trilobites
  • The Paleozoic Era is characterized by the diversification of marine life, including trilobites, brachiopods, and early fish.
• Mesozoic: age of dinosaurs
  • The Mesozoic Era is known as the "Age of Dinosaurs" and is characterized by the dominance of dinosaurs on land.
• Cenozoic: age of mammals; humans appear very late
  • The Cenozoic Era is known as the "Age of Mammals" and is characterized by the diversification of mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs.
  • Humans appeared very late in the Cenozoic Era.

🧱 Unit 6: Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition

Weathering:

• Mechanical: physical break down (ice wedging, abrasion)
  • Mechanical weathering is the physical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition.
  • Ice wedging: The process by which water seeps into cracks in rocks, freezes, and expands, causing the rocks to break apart.
  • Abrasion: The wearing down of rocks by the grinding action of other rocks and sediment.
• Chemical: alters minerals (oxidation, acid rain)
  • Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by chemical reactions that change their mineral composition.
  • Oxidation: The reaction of minerals with oxygen, often resulting in the formation of rust or other oxides.
  • Acid rain: Rainwater that is more acidic than normal due to the presence of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which can dissolve certain types of rocks.

Erosion:

• Movement by wind, water, ice, gravity
  • Erosion is the process by which weathered material is transported from one place to another by agents such as wind, water, ice, and gravity.

Deposition:

• Sediments dropped when energy decreases
  • Deposition is the process by which sediments are dropped or deposited when the energy of the transporting agent decreases.
• Sorted by size, shape, and density
  • Sediments are often sorted by size, shape, and density during deposition, with larger, denser particles being deposited first and smaller, less dense particles being deposited later. Soil = weathered rock + organic material Mass Wasting = landslides, slumps, rockfalls
  • Mass wasting is the downslope movement of soil and rock material under the influence of gravity.
  • Landslides, slumps, and rockfalls are examples of mass wasting events.

☁ Unit 7: The Atmosphere and Weather

Layers of the Atmosphere:

1. Troposphere: weather occurs here
   • The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the Earth's surface to an altitude of about 8-15 kilometers.
   • Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere.
2. Stratosphere: ozone layer
   • The stratosphere is the layer above the troposphere, extending to an altitude of about 50 kilometers.
   • The ozone layer, which absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun, is located in the stratosphere.
3. Mesosphere
   • The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere, extending to an altitude of about 85 kilometers.
4. Thermosphere
   • The thermosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere, extending from an altitude of about 85 kilometers to the edge of space.

Weather Variables:

• Temperature, air pressure, humidity, wind, clouds
  • Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of the air.
  • Air pressure: The force exerted by the weight of the air above a given point.
  • Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air.
  • Wind: The movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
  • Clouds: Visible masses of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.
• Air pressure decreases with altitude
  • Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude because there is less air above to exert pressure.
• Wind flows from high to low pressure
  • Wind flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure due to the pressure gradient force.

Fronts:

• Cold front: thunderstorms
  • A cold front is a boundary between a cold air mass and a warm air mass, where the cold air is advancing.
  • Cold fronts are often associated with thunderstorms and heavy precipitation.
• Warm front: steady rain
  • A warm front is a boundary between a warm air mass and a cold air mass, where the warm air is advancing.
  • Warm fronts are often associated with steady rain and fog.
• Occluded front: mix
  • An occluded front is a front that forms when a cold front overtakes a warm front, lifting the warm air mass off the ground.
  • Occluded fronts are often associated with a mix of weather conditions, including rain, snow, and wind.
• Stationary front: clouds, light rain
  • A stationary front is a front that is not moving.
  • Stationary fronts are often associated with clouds and light rain.

🌡 Unit 8: Climate and Climate Change

Climate Factors:

• Latitude, elevation, ocean currents, proximity to water, mountains
  • Latitude: The distance north or south of the equator, which affects the amount of solar radiation received.
  • Elevation: The height above sea level, which affects temperature and precipitation.
  • Ocean currents: The movement of water in the oceans, which affects the distribution of heat around the globe.
  • Proximity to water: The distance from a large body of water, which affects temperature and humidity.
  • Mountains: The presence of mountains, which can affect precipitation patterns and temperature.

Greenhouse Effect:

• Natural: keeps Earth warm
  • The greenhouse effect is a natural process by which certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat and keep the Earth warm enough to support life.
• Enhanced: human activity adds CO₂ → global warming
  • The enhanced greenhouse effect is the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, which leads to global warming.

Evidence:

• Melting glaciers, rising sea levels, shifting biomes
  • Melting glaciers: Glaciers around the world are melting at an accelerated rate due to global warming.
  • Rising sea levels: Sea levels are rising due to the thermal expansion of water and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
  • Shifting biomes: Biomes are shifting towards the poles as temperatures warm.

💧 Unit 9: Water Cycle and Groundwater

Water Cycle: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Infiltration/Runoff → Collection

• Evaporation: The process by which liquid water changes into water vapor.
• Condensation: The process by which water vapor changes into liquid water or ice crystals.
• Precipitation: The process by which water falls back to Earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
• Infiltration: The process by which water seeps into the ground.
• Runoff: The water that flows over the land surface.
• Collection: The accumulation of water in rivers, lakes, and oceans.
• Infiltration depends on slope, soil, saturation
  • Slope: Steeper slopes result in less infiltration due to increased runoff.
  • Soil: Soil type affects infiltration rates; sandy soils have higher infiltration rates than clay soils.
  • Saturation: Saturated soils have lower infiltration rates because they can't absorb any more water.
• Aquifer = underground water storage
  • An aquifer is a geological formation that contains and transmits groundwater.
• Wells tap into aquifers
  • Wells are used to extract groundwater from aquifers.
• Karst = limestone areas with caves/sinkholes
  • Karst is a type of landscape formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, characterized by caves, sinkholes, and underground drainage systems.

🌊 Unit 10: Oceans and Oceanography

• Continental margin: shelf, slope, rise
  • The continental margin is the zone of the ocean floor that separates the continents from the deep ocean basin.
  • Shelf: The gently sloping submerged edge of a continent, extending from the shoreline to the continental slope.
  • Slope: The steeper zone that marks the transition from the continental shelf to the deep ocean floor.
  • Rise: The gradually sloping area at the base of the continental slope, formed by the accumulation of sediments.
• Mid-ocean ridge: divergent boundary
  • A mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics, where new oceanic crust is created at a divergent plate boundary.
• Trenches: subduction zone
  • A trench is a deep, narrow depression in the ocean floor formed at a subduction zone, where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another.
• Currents: caused by wind & Coriolis effect
  • Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by multiple forces, including wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature, salinity, and tides.
  • Caused by wind & Coriolis effect
  • Wind: Surface currents are primarily driven by wind patterns, transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean.
  • Coriolis Effect: The Coriolis effect deflects moving objects (including water currents) to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, influencing the direction of ocean currents.
• Tides: caused by Moon’s gravity
  • Tides are the daily rise and fall of sea level caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun, on the Earth's oceans.
• Waves: caused by wind
  • Waves are disturbances on the surface of the ocean caused by wind transferring energy to the water.

🌌 Unit 11: Astronomy

Big Bang Theory:

• Universe started ~13.8 billion years ago; expanding still
  • The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe, stating that it originated from an extremely hot, dense state about 13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever since.

Stars:

• Life cycle: Nebula → Protostar → Main Sequence → Red Giant → White Dwarf/Supernova
  • Nebula: A cloud of gas and dust in space, which is the birthplace of stars.
  • Protostar: A contracting mass of gas and dust that represents an early stage in the formation of a star.
  • Main Sequence: The stage in a star's life during which it fuses hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in its core, representing the longest and most stable period of a star's existence.
  • Red Giant: A star that has exhausted its supply of hydrogen in its core and has expanded and cooled, becoming larger and redder.
  • White Dwarf/Supernova: The final stages in the life of a star, depending on its mass: a white dwarf is the small, dense remnant of a low-mass star, while a supernova is the explosive death of a massive star.

Solar System:

• Inner planets: rocky
  • The inner planets of the solar system (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are rocky planets composed mainly of silicate rocks and metals.
• Outer planets: gas giants
  • The outer planets of the solar system (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are gas giants composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.
• Earth: only planet with liquid water & life
  • Earth is unique among the planets in our solar system in having liquid water on its surface and supporting life.

Motions:

• Rotation = day
  • Rotation is the spinning of Earth on its axis, which takes about 24 hours and causes day and night.
• Revolution = year
  • Revolution is the movement of Earth in its orbit around the Sun, which takes about 365.25 days and causes the seasons.
• Tilt = causes seasons
  • The tilt of Earth's axis (about 23.5 degrees) causes the seasons by changing the angle at which sunlight strikes different parts of the Earth throughout the year.

Eclipses:

• Solar: moon blocks sun
  • A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, blocking the Sun's light and casting a shadow on Earth.
• Lunar: Earth blocks sun from moon
  • A lunar eclipse occurs when Earth passes between the Sun and Moon, casting a shadow on the Moon and making it appear dim or reddish.

🔋 Unit 12: Natural Resources and Human Impact

Nonrenewable:

• Coal, oil, natural gas (formed from ancient organisms)
  • Nonrenewable resources are resources that cannot be easily replenished or regenerated on a human timescale.
  • Coal, oil, and natural gas are fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient organisms over millions of years.
  • Polluting, limited
  • The use of nonrenewable resources can lead to pollution and environmental degradation.
  • Nonrenewable resources are limited in supply and will eventually be depleted.

Renewable:

• Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal 🔋 Unit 12: Natural Resources and Human Impact Nonrenewable:
  • Coal, oil, natural gas (formed from ancient organisms)
  • Polluting, limited Renewable:
  • Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal
  • Sustainable, lower emissions Human Impact:
  • Deforestation, pollution, climate change, habitat loss
  • Conservation = recycling, energy efficiency