Deviance and Sport

Deviant behavior is behavior that is beyond “normal” behavior and can be good or bad.
Underconformity: Breaking the rules, not adhering to norms.
Overconformity: Internalizing the rules to the extreme.
Rule breaking occurs accidentally and intentionally.
There's probably less rule-breaking now due to increased officiating, media coverage, and TV replays.
Organizations promote good behavior and include steeper penalties for different types of rule violations.
Examples of rule breaking:
- Modifying equipment
- Committing intentional fouls
- Faking injuries for time-outs
- Participating in brawls
Often done for strategic advantage.

Athletes:
- Experience stress of competition.
- Can be consumed by emotion.
- Strive for optimal levels of arousal and intensity.
Fans:
- Experience increased excitement and arousal with tailgating and alcohol use.
- Hooliganism.

Media exposure and occasional leniency towards accused offenders who are athletes give the perception that athletes are more violent than other segments of society.
Sport mirrors society in violent acts and acceptance of violent acts.
On-Field Violence:
- Demands of collision and contact sports.
- Enforcer roles.
- Societal view of masculinity encouraging warrior mentality.
- Seen as part of the game (e.g., 5 for fighting in hockey, NFL’s Dirtiest Player).
- Examples: Steve Bertuzzi, Ron Artest.
Off-Field Violence:
- It's unclear if on-field violence leads to off-field violence.
- Alcohol use escalates violence incidence; athletes may be more prone to binge drinking.
- Some sports may not cause more violent off-field behavior but may attract people who are already more violent.
- Challenges to manhood occur off the field.
Violence Against Women:
- A three-year study found:
  - Athletes make up 3% of the college population but account for 19% of sexual assaults and 35% of domestic assaults on campus.
  - Athletes commit one in three sexual assaults.
  - The general population conviction rate is 80% for sexual assaults, but only 38% for athletes.
- Sense of entitlement may contribute.
Consequences of On-Field Violent Behavior:
- Shortened careers (and reduced earnings).
- Pressure to return from injuries, regardless of source.
- Concussions are a change in view recently.
- Negative publicity for teams, leagues, organizations.
- Poor behavior modeling.

Athletes may use steroids and other drugs to enhance athletic performance.
Increased use and scandals among athletes (e.g., Jose Canseco, Bode Miller).
Random drug testing in Olympics and some professional leagues (e.g., MLB congressional hearings).
Not a new phenomenon, but there is more media exposure.
Types of Drugs Used:
- Prescription, over-the-counter: Promote healing and mask pain; risks are long term.
- Stimulants: In use for decades; increase arousal and energy levels.
- Anabolic steroids: Increase muscle size, speed, and strength; improves the ability of muscles to train quickly after exhaustion.
- Others: HGH, doping, amino acids.
Key Point: In the London 2012 Olympics, there was a record number of drug tests.
- More than 5,000 blood and urine tests were administered, and an additional 1,200 tests were carried out at the Paralympics at the same venue (Beikoff 2010b).
Potential Issues With Drug Use:
- Growing rejection by fans, parents, and kids.
- Withdrawal of financial support.
- Acceptance.
- Long-term health risks.
- Youth athletes emulating the big leagues.
- Females: Risks to future pregnancies.
- Genetic engineering.
Responding to Drug Use in Sport:
- IOC and WADA efforts.
- Government involvement (hearings).
- Sport organizations caring for athletes and seeing it as a management and labor issue.
- Media being fair and balanced (not blaming).
- Parents, educational programs.
- Sport and exercise scientists.

Up to 33% of female athletes reported to have eating disorders (higher than nonathletes).
Sport attracts the disciplined and determined.
Includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, disordered eating, and compulsive exercise.
Eating disorders among female athletes have increased since Title IX.
Coaches and parents can inadvertently encourage eating disorders.
Female athlete triad:
- Disordered eating
- Amenorrhea
- Osteoporosis

Includes mental or physical harm or anxiety and demeaning or degrading behavior regardless of intent or consent.
80% of college athletes have been hazed.
All athletes are at risk.
Seen as a rite of passage.
Dangerous acts (excessive physical punishment, sexual assault) increase.

Has always been an important issue for sports organizers because without public confidence in the integrity of the games, the popularity of the games will decline.
Players: Chicago “Black Sox,” college basketball, Pete Rose.
Referees: Tim Donaghy, 2006 World Cup.
Fans:
- 48 of 50 U.S. states allow some type of gambling.
- The Internet makes gambling much easier.
- Illegal wagers result in up to $380$ billion annually.
- Involvement of organized crime is a concern.
- Online betting is increasing, but not yet illegal.
- College students who gamble are also more likely to engage in other risky behaviors.