Deviance and Sport

Rule Breaking

• Deviant behavior is behavior that is beyond “normal” behavior and can be good or bad.
• Underconformity: Breaking the rules, not adhering to norms.
• Overconformity: Internalizing the rules to the extreme.
• Rule breaking occurs accidentally and intentionally.
• There's probably less rule-breaking now due to increased officiating, media coverage, and TV replays.
• Organizations promote good behavior and include steeper penalties for different types of rule violations.
• Examples of rule breaking:
  • Modifying equipment
  • Committing intentional fouls
  • Faking injuries for time-outs
  • Participating in brawls
• Often done for strategic advantage.

Emotion and Deviant Behavior

• Athletes:
  • Experience stress of competition.
  • Can be consumed by emotion.
  • Strive for optimal levels of arousal and intensity.
• Fans:
  • Experience increased excitement and arousal with tailgating and alcohol use.
  • Hooliganism.

Violence in Sport

• Media exposure and occasional leniency towards accused offenders who are athletes give the perception that athletes are more violent than other segments of society.
• Sport mirrors society in violent acts and acceptance of violent acts.
• On-Field Violence:
  • Demands of collision and contact sports.
  • Enforcer roles.
  • Societal view of masculinity encouraging warrior mentality.
  • Seen as part of the game (e.g., 5 for fighting in hockey, NFL’s Dirtiest Player).
  • Examples: Steve Bertuzzi, Ron Artest.
• Off-Field Violence:
  • It's unclear if on-field violence leads to off-field violence.
  • Alcohol use escalates violence incidence; athletes may be more prone to binge drinking.
  • Some sports may not cause more violent off-field behavior but may attract people who are already more violent.
  • Challenges to manhood occur off the field.
• Violence Against Women:
  • A three-year study found:
    • Athletes make up 3% of the college population but account for 19% of sexual assaults and 35% of domestic assaults on campus.
    • Athletes commit one in three sexual assaults.
    • The general population conviction rate is 80% for sexual assaults, but only 38% for athletes.
  • Sense of entitlement may contribute.
• Consequences of On-Field Violent Behavior:
  • Shortened careers (and reduced earnings).
  • Pressure to return from injuries, regardless of source.
  • Concussions are a change in view recently.
  • Negative publicity for teams, leagues, organizations.
  • Poor behavior modeling.

Performance Enhancement Through Drugs

• Athletes may use steroids and other drugs to enhance athletic performance.
• Increased use and scandals among athletes (e.g., Jose Canseco, Bode Miller).
• Random drug testing in Olympics and some professional leagues (e.g., MLB congressional hearings).
• Not a new phenomenon, but there is more media exposure.
• Types of Drugs Used:
  • Prescription, over-the-counter: Promote healing and mask pain; risks are long term.
  • Stimulants: In use for decades; increase arousal and energy levels.
  • Anabolic steroids: Increase muscle size, speed, and strength; improves the ability of muscles to train quickly after exhaustion.
  • Others: HGH, doping, amino acids.
• Key Point: In the London 2012 Olympics, there was a record number of drug tests.
  • More than 5,000 blood and urine tests were administered, and an additional 1,200 tests were carried out at the Paralympics at the same venue (Beikoff 2010b).
• Potential Issues With Drug Use:
  • Growing rejection by fans, parents, and kids.
  • Withdrawal of financial support.
  • Acceptance.
  • Long-term health risks.
  • Youth athletes emulating the big leagues.
  • Females: Risks to future pregnancies.
  • Genetic engineering.
• Responding to Drug Use in Sport:
  • IOC and WADA efforts.
  • Government involvement (hearings).
  • Sport organizations caring for athletes and seeing it as a management and labor issue.
  • Media being fair and balanced (not blaming).
  • Parents, educational programs.
  • Sport and exercise scientists.

Eating Disorders in Sport

• Up to 33% of female athletes reported to have eating disorders (higher than nonathletes).
• Sport attracts the disciplined and determined.
• Includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, disordered eating, and compulsive exercise.
• Eating disorders among female athletes have increased since Title IX.
• Coaches and parents can inadvertently encourage eating disorders.
• Female athlete triad:
  • Disordered eating
  • Amenorrhea
  • Osteoporosis

Hazing in Sport

• Includes mental or physical harm or anxiety and demeaning or degrading behavior regardless of intent or consent.
• 80% of college athletes have been hazed.
• All athletes are at risk.
• Seen as a rite of passage.
• Dangerous acts (excessive physical punishment, sexual assault) increase.

Gambling in Sport

• Has always been an important issue for sports organizers because without public confidence in the integrity of the games, the popularity of the games will decline.
• Players: Chicago “Black Sox,” college basketball, Pete Rose.
• Referees: Tim Donaghy, 2006 World Cup.
• Fans:
  • 48 of 50 U.S. states allow some type of gambling.
  • The Internet makes gambling much easier.
  • Illegal wagers result in up to 380 billion annually.
  • Involvement of organized crime is a concern.
  • Online betting is increasing, but not yet illegal.
  • College students who gamble are also more likely to engage in other risky behaviors.